CHAPTER 6

Question 1

Consciousness

Answer 1

conscious awareness of oneself and one’s environment

Question 2

Gerhard Roth (2004)

Answer 2

• consciousness comprises many states; these lie on a continuum from coma to sleep to alertness.
• Roth defines two forms:
• background stream
• actual stream

Question 3

William James (1892)

Answer 3

-first proposed the concept of a “stream” of consciousness

Question 4

background stream

Answer 4

DEFINITION: long-lasting sensory experiences

• sense of personal identity
• awareness of one’s body; control of body and intellect
• location in space/time
• level of reality of experience; fantasy vs. reality

Question 5

actual stream

Answer 5

DEFINITION:concrete, often rapidly alternating states of awareness.

• awareness of processes in one’s body and environment
• cognitive activities, emotions, feelings, and needs (e.g., hunger)
• wishes, intentions, and acts of will
• sharpened by processes of attention

Question 6

which kinds of studies were used to implicate mutable areas of the _____

Answer 6

PET/FMRI studies were used to implicate mutable areas of the association cortex for these two aspects of consciousness

Question 7

David J. Chalmers (1995):

Answer 7

• defines two kinds of problems in understanding consciousness

1. the “easy problems”
2. the “ hard problem”

• Chalmers is skeptical that neuroscience can provide answers to these “hard” questions

Question 8

1. the “easy problems”

Answer 8

are ones that psychology and neuroscience are trying to answer (and are actually quite challenging):

• How can we discriminate sensory stimuli and react to them appropriately?
• How does the brain integrate information and use this to control behaviour?
• How is it that we can verbalize our internal states?

Question 9

2. the “hard problem”

Answer 9

Is the question of how physical processes in the brain give rise to subjective experience:

• Why is it that when our brains process light of a certain wavelength, we have a particular experience (of red, for example)?
• Why do we have any experience at all?
• Could not an unconscious automaton have performed the same tasks just as well?

Question 10

visual form agnosia

Answer 10

person cannot visually perceive global structure (e.g., object identity, shape, orientation), despite intact low-level sensory processing (e.g., acuity, colour, and brightness discrimination); likely due to a failure of binding at an early stage of visual processing

Question 11

patient D.F. had diffuse damage to occipitotemporal cortex

Answer 11

had visual form agnosia

• could not recognize, discriminate, or copy complex visual forms, like shapes
• but (to her own surprise) she could accurately reach for and grasp objects

Question 12

implication of visual form agnosia

Answer 12

holistic visual perception (“what”) is different from visually guided action (“how”)

Question 13

visual object agnosia

Answer 13

person cannot visually identify objects, even though they can “see” and describe them

Question 14

Oliver Sacks’ patient Dr. P. had damage in….

Answer 14

(visual object agnosia)

• Oliver Sacks’ patient Dr. P. had damage in visual association cortex
• could copy pictures, but not identify them

Question 15

implication of visual object agnosia

Answer 15

visual perception and identification are different processes

Question 16

blindsight

Answer 16

person has no visual experience (i.e., they are blind), but can perform visually guided tasks better than chance level

Question 17

patient G.Y

Answer 17

(blindsight)
had left primary visual cortex removed

• could correctly guess which way a line was moving and could grasp objects in his blind field

Question 18

implications of blindsight

Answer 18

there must be another visual pathway that bypasses the primary visual cortex; some aspects of vision are not conscious

Question 19

circadian rhythm

Answer 19

body’s biological sleep/wake cycle

Question 20

Kleitman & Richardson (1938)

Answer 20

• stayed in Mammoth Cave in Kentucky for 33 days
• went to sleep and woke up 1 hour later each day
• confound: amount of artificial light exposure

Question 21

Czeisler et al. (1999)

Answer 21

• carefully controlled amount of light exposure in a lab
• free-running circadian rhythm found to be 24 hours, 11 minutes long
• optic nerve connects tosuprachiasmatic nuclei(SCN) of the hypothalamus, reset by light each day
• SCN inhibits pineal gland from producingmelatonin, the “sleep hormone”

Question 22

Brain/muscle activity measured with electroencephalogram (EEG)

Answer 22

electrodes pasted to scalp/face measure activity.

• measure beta and alpha waves.

Question 23

beta waves

Answer 23

• occur in awake, active state; irregular, low amplitude, high frequency.

Question 24

Alpha waves

Answer 24

occur in awake, relaxed state; medium amplitude, medium frequency

Question 25

how many stages of sleep are there

Answer 25

4

Question 26

stage 1

Answer 26

Light sleep, lasts 2-10 min.; transition period * breathing, brain waves slow down * alpha waves; theta waves * may experience hallucinations/images, sensation of falling, hypnic jerks

Question 27

stage 2

Answer 27

deeper sleep; 15-20 min. * irregular activity; sleep spindle: bursts of activity correlated with memory consolidation *  k-complex

Question 28

 k-complex

Answer 28

brief spike of very high-amplitude activity; can occur in response to sounds (knocking?) on the first presentation, or hearing one’s name

Question 29

stage 3

Answer 29

~15 min. | • some delta waves

Question 30

delta waves

Answer 30

high amplitude, low frequency

Question 31

theta waves

Answer 31

irregular, medium amplitude, slower frequency (4-8 Hz)

Question 32

stage 4

Answer 32

deepest sleep, ~15 min. • delta waves predominate; people difficult to awaken  s

Question 33

Stages 3 & 4 are called ...

Answer 33

slow-wave sleep because of the delta wave

Question 34

You then return through stages 3 & 2, which is followed by

Answer 34

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

Question 35

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

Answer 35

* sawtooth waves occur; similar to beta waves (REM is called (“paradoxical sleep”) * heart rate increases, irregular breathing, genitals become aroused, brainstem paralyzes muscles * dreams experienced *  REM rebound

Question 36

dreams experienced

Answer 36

have narrative form; often emotional

Question 37

REM rebound

Answer 37

if REM is interrupted, one returns to it much more quickly and stays in it longer on subsequent nights

Question 38

sleep architecture

Answer 38

Cycling through sleep stages continues; sleep cycle ~90 minutes

Question 39

Restoration theory

Answer 39

- Adaptive significance: helps one recuperate physically/mentally - Energy conserved; growth hormone released during sleep - Amount of sleep is correlated with strength of immune system

Question 40

Preservation and protection Theory

Answer 40

adaptive significance: helps one avoid dangers and predators that are hard to see in the dark

Question 41

Learning & Memory

Answer 41

- Adaptive significance: sleep consolidates recent memories - People are more than twice as likely to discover insight into a numerical cognitive task after 8 hours of sleep (Wagner et al., 2004)

Question 42

Sleep Deprivation

Answer 42

- physical fatigue is different from sleepiness - how much sleep do you need? (Maas and colleagues, 1998) * don’t need alarm clock to wake up * don’t struggle to get out of bed * not tired/irritable during the day * don’t fall asleep watching TV - sleep depends on culture and age

Question 43

effects of deprivation

Answer 43

* intense sleepiness (worse at night; maximal at 62 hours) * reduced immune system function (3× more likely to get a cold) * psychotic symptoms * decreased cognitive functioning, including impaired decision making and memory impairment (“recovery” sleep does not help)

Question 44

Stanley Coren (1996)

Answer 44

- Teens need 10 hours of sleep; get 7-7½ - Deprivation affects IQ scores: for each hour under 8, 1-2 IQ points lost; effects may be cumulative - Traffic accidents in Canada increased by 7% after spring time change; 7% lower after fall time change

Question 45

dyssomnias

Answer 45

disturbances in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep

Question 46

insomnia

Answer 46

difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep for at least 1 month, not caused by any other disorder - affects 10-15% of population - sleeping pills reduce REM and slow-wave sleep; sleep less satisfying; leads to vicious circle: can’t sleep ==> sleeping pill ==>  dependence

Question 47

better plan for sleep hygiene

Answer 47

» sleep on a regular schedule (even on weekends) » only consume caffeine in morning/early afternoon, and don’t eat before bedtime » don’t exercise in evening; just relax before bedtime » limit light exposure in the evening (especially blue light/screens) » don’t do anything in bed but sleep

Question 48

narcolepsy

Answer 48

symptoms include excessive daytime sleepiness, vivid nightmares, cataplexy (loss of muscle control, often triggered by intense emotions) - in narcolepsy, REM occurs at sleep onset; periods of REM and non-REM (NREM) sleep are disturbed - normally treated with stimulants, nap scheduling affects 0.1% of population

Question 49

sleep apnea

Answer 49

cessation of breathing during sleep, which causes sleeper to awaken to breathe

Question 50

central

Answer 50

breathing control centres in the brain interrupted; can be caused by depressants/sedatives

Question 51

obstructive

Answer 51

physical blockage of airflow; can be caused by upper respiratory infection; linked to obesity

Question 52

what the most common method of measuring consciousness

Answer 52

self report, BUT behavioural measures are also used.

Question 53

parasomnia

Answer 53

sleep disorders involving abnormal or unnatural movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, or dreams

Question 54

somniloquy (“sleep talking”)

Answer 54

- words/gibberish spoken during sleep - occurs during brief arousals from NREM sleep, or during REM - affects 50% of children, 5% of adults

Question 55

somnambulism (“sleepwalking”)

Answer 55

- walking, eating, bathing, driving while asleep (eyes are open); no memory for the episode; no response if spoken to - occurs in slow-wave sleep (not acting out a dream) - affects 18% of population; more common in children - not indicative of psychological problem

Question 56

night terrors

Answer 56

- person appears terrified and cannot regain consciousness (difficult to awaken); is not a nightmare - occurs in slow-wave sleep; may last 10-20 minutes - mostly affects children (about 3%); may be linked to emotional stress

Question 57

Dreams

Answer 57

- more activity in cortical areas associated with visual imagery, movement perception, and emotion; also in pons - less activity in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, associated with volitional action and evaluation of what is logical and socially appropriate

Question 58

Psychoanalytic view (Freud, 1900)

Answer 58

wish fulfillment - dreams are “the royal road to the unconscious”

Question 59

manifest content

Answer 59

surface content of dream, based on preoccupations of life; safe version of...

Question 60

latent content

Answer 60

underlying, unconscious wishes and desires that are too dangerous to admit

Question 61

Physiological view (Hobson & McCarley, 1977)

Answer 61

activation-synthesis model - dreams provide otherwise dormant brain with stimulation - dreams are cognitive interpretations of random signals

Question 62

evidence for Physiological view (Hobson & McCarley, 1977)

Answer 62

greater activity in visual and emotional brain regions; less activity in lateral prefrontal cortex (logical reasoning, decision making, and working memory)

Question 63

Cognitive view (Cartwright, 1991; Winson, 1990)

Answer 63

Learning/memory/problem solving - dreams work to consolidate memories & learned experiences; help solve problems

Question 64

evidence for Cognitive view (Cartwright, 1991; Winson, 1990)

Answer 64

REM sleep enhanced learning of logic games, foreign language acquisition, problem solving, studying

Question 65

Psychoactive Drugs

Answer 65

- affect perceptions and/or moods | - may enter brain by crossing blood-brain barrier

Question 66

blood-brain barrier

Answer 66

blood vessels in brain less porous; closely surrounded by supporting cells

Question 67

Stimulants

Answer 67

increase neural activity, alertness, body functions; may elevate mood

Question 68

amphetamines

Answer 68

- produce alertness & euphoria.

Question 69

amphetamine psychosis

Answer 69

hallucinations and paranoid delusions

Question 70

downsides to amphetamines

Answer 70

- amphetamine psychosis - controversial treatment for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: methylphenidate (Ritalin®) - interfere with NE & DA reuptake

Question 71

MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, “ecstacy”)

Answer 71

- acts as stimulant and hallucinogen; causes general sense of openness, empathy, energy, euphoria, and well-being

Question 72

downsides toMDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine

Answer 72

- impairs attention, concentration, learning, and memory - stimulates secretion and inhibits reuptake of large amounts of 5-HT, as well as DA and NE - chronic high doses lead to destruction of terminal buttons of 5-HT neurons

Question 73

cocaine

Answer 73

- initial “rush” lasts minutes-hours

Question 74

downsides to cocaine

Answer 74

“crash,” paranoia, convulsions, heart failure, psychosis - blocks reuptake of NE, DA, & 5-HT

Question 75

nicotine

Answer 75

- increases heart rate, BP; decreases emotional reactivity

Question 76

downsides to nicotine

Answer 76

- more addictive than heroin; tobacco contains several dozen known carcinogens - activates nicotinic ACh receptors  

Question 77

caffeine

Answer 77

- increases heart rate, BP - antagonist for the inhibitory neuromodulator adenosine; increases dopamine levels; also stimulates pituitary gland to secrete hormones which cause the adrenal glands to produce more adrenaline

Question 78

Depressants/Tranquilizers

Answer 78

decrease neural activity, body functions, anxiety

Question 79

benzodiazepines

Answer 79

- antianxiety drugs; GABA agonists

Question 80

barbiturates

Answer 80

- “hypnotic”/sedative; GABA agonists

Question 81

alcohol

Answer 81

- reduces judgment, decreases inhibitions; disrupts processing of experiences into long-term memory - GABA receptor agonist, and glutamate receptor antagonist - does not kill brain cells, but damages dendrites, which may be repaired with abstinence.

Question 82

Opioids/Narcotics:

Answer 82

produce feelings of euphoria, analgesia • oxycodone (OxyContin®), fentanyl, morphine, heroin: like endorphins; inhibit production of endogenous opioids

Question 83

downsides to opcodes/ narcotics

Answer 83

- dependence, respiratory depression | - attach to opioid receptors, which reduce GABA, which normally inhibits DA release

Question 84

Hallucinogens

Answer 84

distort perceptions, moods - LSD

Question 85

LSD

Answer 85

- (lysergic acid diethylamide) - only a few micrograms needed for a “trip”; lasts 6-12 hours - CIA’s Project MKUltra used LSD on people to find if it could turn them into “robots agents”

Question 86

THC

Answer 86

- (tetrahydrocannabinol) - found in leaves of hemp plant (cannabis/marijuana/hashish) - effects range from mild euphoria; to perceptual and time distortions; to hallucinations, delusions, and distortions of body image (depending on dose)

Question 87

downsides to THC

Answer 87

» disrupts short-term memory, impairs reaction time, judgment, and peripheral vision » long-term use of marijuana can trigger onset of psychosis and accelerate development of schizophrenia » cannabis contains 50% more carcinogens than tobacco smoke - acts like anandamide, an endogenous cannabinoid

Question 88

antipsychotics

Answer 88

remove symptoms of psychosis

Question 89

tricyclics (TCAs)

Answer 89

- may inhibit reuptake of NE and 5-HT

Question 90

 monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

Answer 90

- inhibit enzyme that breaks down 5-HT, NE, or DA (==> agonist)

Question 91

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Answer 91

- bind to serotonin transport (SERT) proteins. - there is little evidence that depression is caused by low levels of serotonin (are headaches caused by low levels of aspirin?)