Chapter 7: Learning

Question 1

What is Classical Conditioning?

Answer 1

• In classical conditioning behaviour is controlled by associations:

• We learn about how things in the environment occur together, predict each other

Question 2

What is Operant Conditioning?

Answer 2

• In operant conditioning-­‐ behaviour is controlled by consequences:

• We learn about how our behaviour effects the environment…
• …or perhaps – how the environment affects our behaviour

Question 3

What is learning?

Answer 3

• Learning is a process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behaviour or capabilities. Learning is measured by changes in an organism’s responses and is a form of personal adaptation to the environment.

Question 4

List some characteristics of Learning?

Answer 4

1. A change in behaviour or behaviour potential
2. A relatively consistent change
3. process based on experience

Question 5

Explain - A change in behaviour or behaviour potential

Answer 5

• Cannot ‘see’ learning per se
• Can see the results of learning:
• An improvement in performance
• Acquired general attitudes: An appreciation of modern art, an understanding of eastern philosophy

• The latter may influence how you spend leisure time

Question 6

Explain - A relatively consistent change

Answer 6

• Consistent over different circumstances: can ride ANY bicycle
• Not necessarily permanent changes: stop practicing a skill and performance deadlines
• BUT: the skill is much more easily learned the second time, and so change may be permanent.

Question 7

Explain - Process based on experience

Answer 7

• Learning can only take place through experience
• Experience is taking in information and making responses that affect the environment
• Learning happens when a response is influence by the lessons of memory: As apposed to being influence by maturation, illness or brain damage

Question 8

Explain = Learning vs Performance

Answer 8

• Learning in and of itself is difficult to observe
• However leaning is a factor in performance
• Performance can be observed and measured
• Not a perfect correspondence, but the best we have

Question 9

What are the two types of learning

Answer 9

1. Associative

2. Non-­‐Associative

Question 10

Which Behaviours do NOT NEED LEARNING?

Answer 10

• Reflexes are: adaptive, unlearned (but not invariant), non-­‐associative
• Habituation and Sensitization

Question 11

Orienting responses: Habituation vs. Sensitization

Answer 11

Orienting responses:
Managing Environmental Stimulation: There is constantly masses of it…What is important-­‐ what is not?

• Habituation: Response to stimuli decreases with frequent presentation
• Sensitization: Response to stimuli increases with frequent presentation

Question 12

Define and explain HABITUATION:

Answer 12

• Habituation is a decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus. It allows organisms to attend to other stimuli that are more important.

•	“A decline in responding to repeated presentations of a stimulus” (Bond & McConkey, 2001, p 4)
- Busy roads, railways and sleep
•	Fits the definition of learning
•	Not merely fatigue
-  Test for dishabituation

• Example: Startle to a 1kHz tone is initially large and declines over time, but spikes when a flash of light is applied, showing the decrease in response is not due to fatigue
• Testing flavors: steadily decreases for the first 10 drops, flavor changes – dramatic spike

Question 13

SOLOM AND CORBIT (1974) OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY:

Answer 13

• Whenever an A process is recruited, so too is a B process, which is opposite to the effects of A
• A process = being in love
• B process= not being in love; takes a while to turn off and a while to turn off
• Current state is the sum of the two processes:
• The B process grows with repeated presentations, The A state gets progressively smaller (every relationship you have and the B process gets bigger)
• The person eating the chips more regularly had a higher rate of craving;

Question 14

Explain “opponent process theory of colour visions”

Answer 14

• We perceive colour as red or green, blue or yellow
• After-­‐images appear in complementary colours: E.g. red images after exposure to green
• Evidence: thalamic and retinal ganglion cells that respond to red are inhibited by green.

Question 15

Explain Sensitisation:

Answer 15

• Increased responsiveness with repeated stimulation
• Generally with stronger/important stimuli
• Generally relatively short lived
• Cyclone survivors sometimes sensitized to weather sounds (e.g. living in Queensland lots of cyclones)

Question 16

Explain in Summary what learning is

Answer 16

• Learning is: an enduring change in behaviour potential
• Learning is not: temporary states, maturation or physical modification
• Learning allows: flexible adaptation to environmental demands:
• Different forms: habituation/Sensitization, classical conditioning, operant learning, vicarious learning

Question 17

Classical Conditioning and definitions - Classical Conditioning

Answer 17

• Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR).
• Through pairing the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that evokes a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original UCR.

Question 18

Classical Conditioning and definitions - Acquisition

Answer 18

• Acquisition involves CS-­‐UCS pairings. Extinction represents the disappearance of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS.

Question 19

Classical Conditioning and definitions - Extinction

Answer 19

• Extinction: is a process, which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear

Question 20

Classical Conditioning and definitions - Spontaneous recovery

Answer 20

• After Extinction spontaneous recovery of the CR may occur when the CS is presented after a rest period and without any new learning trials.

Question 21

Classical Conditioning and definitions - Stimulus Generalisation

Answer 21

• Stimulus generalization occurs when a CR is elicited by a stimulus similar to the original CS.

Question 22

Classical Conditioning and definitions - Discrimination

Answer 22

• Discrimination occurs when a CR occurs to one stimulus but not another.
• In higher-­‐order conditioning, once a stimulus (e.g. a tone) becomes a CS, it can be used in place of the original UCS (food) to condition other neutral stimuli

Question 23

Examples of CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PRACTICALITY - exposure Therapy, Systematic Desensitisation, Flooding, Eversion Therapy.

Answer 23

• Bodily and psychological responses can be classically conditioned, including fears, sexual attraction, positive and negative attitudes, nausea and immune system responses.
• Techniques based on classical conditioning are highly successful in treating phobias.
• Exposure therapies: in which a patient is exposed to a stimulus (CS) that arouses an anxiety response (such as fear) without the presence of the UCS, allowing extinction to occur. (treatment of phobias)
• Systematic desensitisation: the patient learns muscle relaxation techniques and is gradually exposed to the fear-­‐provoking stimulus.
• Flooding: immediately exposes the person to the phobic stimulus.
• Eversion Therapy: which attempts to condition an aversion (an repulsion) to a stimulus that triggers unwanted behaviour, by pairing it with a noxious UCS (e.g. treating pedophiles with pictures of children and an electric shock)

Question 24

Classical Conditioning in Sickness and Health = ALLERGIC REACTIONS

Answer 24

• Allergic Reactions: classical conditioning can often account for the appearance of physical symptoms that do not seem to have a medical cause. (e.g. by consistently pairing a neutral stimulus (distinctive odour) with a substance that naturally triggers an allergic reaction, the neutral stimulus can become a CS that elicits a similar allergic response.

Question 25

Classical Conditioning in Sickness and Health = Anticipatory nausea and vomiting

Answer 25

• Anticipatory nausea and vomiting: Initially neutral stimuli, such as hypodermic needles, the hospital room become associated with the treatment (the UCS) and acts as conditioned stimuli that trigger nausea and vomiting.

Question 26

Classical Conditioning in Sickness and Health = THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Answer 26

• The immune system: After being paired with an immunosuppressant drug (UCS), sweet water(neutral stimulus) becomes a CD that triggers a reduced immune response.

Question 27

Who is Ivan Pavlov?

Answer 27

Ivan Pavlov (1849-­‐1936) * Russian Physiologist and Nobel Prize Winner * Original interest in animal digestion * Best known for his work on classical conditioning

Question 28

Explain Pavlovs Dogs

Answer 28

* The dogs started to salivate prior to the food being delivered, due to the meat powder * Neutral Stimulus: stimulus that elicits no response * Unconditioned response/stimulus: a response/stimulus that is automatic

Question 29

Explain ACQUISTION OF PAVLOV'S DOGS

Answer 29

Acquisition: the period during which a condition is being learned. * Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulates an unconditioned response; the meat * Unconditioned response (UCR): salivation to the meat * Conditioned stimulus (CS): stimulates a conditioned stimulus; the bell * Conditioned response (CR): salivation to the bell * Pavlov found greater salivation occurred with acquisition trials (increased slope) v extinction trials (decreased slope)

Question 30

Possibilities after conditioning:

Answer 30

• Extinction: - Acquired behaviour - Not really gone – just suppressed • Reconditioning: - Relearning acquired behaviour is faster than original conditioning • Spontaneous recovery: - Extinguished behaviour suddenly reappears

Question 31

Official Definition of Classical CONDITIONING

Answer 31

• “The pairing, in some fixed temporary relationship, of a neutral stimulus (to be conditioned stimulus) with a stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) capable of regularly and reliably eliciting a response (unconditioned response) [leading to a conditioned response]” (after Bond &McConkey 2011, 4.7)

Question 32

What is Temporary Association (contingency) between stimuli

Answer 32

• Is a central factor in classical conditioning

Question 33

Explain WATSON and BEHAVIOURALISM (temporary association)

Answer 33

Watson and Behaviouralism: • Argues that conditioning can explain all behaviour • All you behaviour was explicable in terms of the classical conditioning that occurred to you – a blank slate that ‘learning’ could write on.

Question 34

Explain Generalisation and Discrimination (Temporary association)

Answer 34

• Initially, some degree of CR may occur in response to similar stimuli (generalization) And Discrimination… • However increasing specificity of response can be achieved with further training • Cf. ‘shaping’ in lecture on operant conditioning (to come)

Question 35

Temporary Association: Equipotentiality premise:

Answer 35

* All stimuli are equally conditionable | * But are they?

Question 36

Temporary Association: Gracia and Koelling (1966): Cue to Consequence Study

Answer 36

* 4 groups of rats exposed to different conditions * For half of them after drinking the water (in bright noisy environment) or flavored water, were then shocked or made sick. * Dependent variables: how much the rats then chose to drink * The rats with the bright noisy water drank less then drank less * Tasty water and made to feel ill drank less.

Question 37

Temporary Association: Seligman

Answer 37

* Species-­‐specific defense mechanisms (SSDMs) * Preparedness theory of phobias: some associated are learned more easily and harder to extinguish * Evolutionary history prepares us to acquire our fears more rapidly

Question 38

Classical Conditioning SIEGEL - DRUGS

Answer 38

* If a drug changes bodily functioning in a certain way, the brain tries to restore balance by direct opposition to this action via homeostatic mechanisms, termed the conditioned compensatory response. In Siegel (1975) rats demonstrated an increased pain tolerance to the hot plate, if they had been previously tested on it, due to the familiar environmental cues invoking the conditioned compensatory response. * This applied to the study means the caffeine itself (unconditioned stimulus) and the environmental cues associated with caffeine intake (conditioned stimulus) would provoke the conditioned compensatory response, resulting in the opposite effects of caffeine in an effort to maintain a state of equilibrium.

Question 39

What is Operant Conditioning ?

Answer 39

Operant Conditioning: is a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow it.

Question 40

Operant Conditioning ; THORNDIKE'S LAW OF EFFECT

Answer 40

* Thorndike’s law of effect states that responses followed by satisfying consequences are strengthened, whereas those followed by annoying consequences are weakened. * Local cats and puzzle boxes • Law of effect: “if a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying or pleasant consequence, it will be strengthened” (Nairne, 2003, p248) * If an actions brings a reward it becomes stamped into the mind * Behaviour is due to consequences

Question 41

Operant Conditioning: B.F Skinner

Answer 41

* Skinner analyzed operant conditioning in terms of antecedents, behaviours and consequences. * The ABC model of Behaviour Modification: 1. Antecedents: Events preceding the behaviour (‘Warning Light flashes on operators console’) - Discriminative stimuli are antecedents that signal the likely consequences of particular behaviours in given situations. 2. Behaviour: The behaviour the person enacts as a response to the antecedents (‘Operator switches off machine’s main power source’) 3. Consequences: Events that follow the enacted behaviour and affect the employee in some way (‘coworker thank operator for stopping the machine’ • Skinner Box: a special camber used to study operant conditioning experimentally.

Question 42

Types of consequences of Operant Conditioning

Answer 42

• Skinner identifies several types of consequences, the main two being: 1. Reinforcement: a response is strengthened by its consequences 2. Punishment: occurs when a response is weakened by outcomes that follow it.

Question 43

What is SKINNER BOX?

Answer 43

• Skinner Box: a special camber used to study operant conditioning experimentally.

Question 44

Operant Conditioning - Consequence: Explain Reinforcement

Answer 44

• Reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened by its consequences. 1. With positive reinforcement a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus. - Introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behaviour (e.g. receiving praise for completing a project) 2. With negative reinforcement, a response is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus. - The removal or avoidance of consequences increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behaviour (e.g. supervisors stop criticizing employees whose behaviour has improved)

Question 45

What is Operant Extinction?

Answer 45

• In operant extinction, a response weakens and eventually disappears because it is no longer reinforced. - When the target behaviour decreases because no consequence follows it. (e.g. performance tends to decline when managers stop praising employees for good work)

Question 46

Explain (OPERANT.c - skinner)

Answer 46

• Punishment occurs when a response is weakened by its consequences-­‐ when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a behaviour (e.g. being demoted) - With aversive punishment, the consequence involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus. - With response cost, the consequence involves withdrawing a rewarding stimulus. Thus use of corporal punishment with children is controversial.

Question 47

Five major operant processes: positive reinforcement, 1. BEHAVIOUR 2. CONSEQUENCE 3. RESULT

Answer 47

1. Response occurs (Rat presses a lever) 2. A stimulus is presented (Food pellets appear) 3. Response Increases (Lever pressing increases)

Question 48

Five major operant processes: negative reinforcement, 1. BEHAVIOUR 2. CONSEQUENCE 3. RESULT

Answer 48

1. Response occurs (Person takes aspirin) 2. An aversive stimulus is removed (Headache pain goes away) 3. Response increases (Increased tendency to take aspirin for headache relief)

Question 49

Five major operant processes: OPERANT EXTINCTION 1. BEHAVIOUR 2. CONSEQUENCE 3. RESULT

Answer 49

1. Response occurs (Rate presses a lever) 2. A stimulus that was reinforcing the behaviour no longer appears (No food pellets) 3. Response decreases (Lever pressing decreases)

Question 50

Five major operant processes: AVERSE PUNISHMENT (POSITIVE) 1. BEHAVIOUR 2. CONSEQUENCE 3. RESULT

Answer 50

1. Response occurs (Two siblings fight over a toy) 2. An aversive stimulus is presented (Parents scold or smack them) 3. Response decreases (Fighting decreases)

Question 51

Five major operant processes: RESPONSE COST PUNISHMENT (negative)

Answer 51

1. Response occurs (Two siblings fight over a toy) 2. A stimulus is removed (No TV for a week) 3. Response decreases (Fighting decreases)

Question 52

OPERANT Conditioning: CATEGORIES OF RESPONSES

Answer 52

* Positive reinforcement: Chocolate each time you do something good= more likely to commit the behaviour * Punishment: electric shock each time, less likely to commit action * Negative reinforcement: taking a panadol reduces the pain-­‐ more likely to take panadol in the future * Response Cost: The offset of an event causes a decrease in behaviour BEHAVIOUR EVENT Onset - Positive Reinforcement (Increases) - Punishment (decreases) Offset - Negative Reinforcement (increases) - Response Cost (decreases)

Question 53

Forming and Strengthening Operant Behaviour = SHAPING, REINFORCEMENT, CHAINING.

Answer 53

* 1. Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations that increasingly resemble the final desired behaviour (e.g. praising child each time they become closer to tying their shoelace) * 2. Reinforcement: ^^allows us to achieve shaping - Primary Reinforcer: Food, water (have an intrinsic value to themselves) - Secondary Reinforcer (Conditioned reinforcer): money, praise (have acquired conditioned properties through classical conditioning) • 3. Chaining: used to develop a sequence (chain) of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response - Chaining often beings with the final response in the sequence and works backwards toward the first response. - E.g. the rat has learned to climb a ladder to reach a string, pull on the string to raise the ladder and then climb the ladder again to reach food at the top.

Question 54

Generalization and Discrimination: operant generalization, operant discrimination, stimulus control

Answer 54

• 1. Operant Generalization occurs when behaviour changes in one situation due to reinforcement or punishment and the new response carries over to similar situations - A dog taught by its owner to ‘sit!’ will likely start sitting when other people give the command. • 2. Operant discrimination occurs when an operant response will occur to one antecedent stimulus but not to another. - Can teach an organism that pressing a level when a red light is on produces food, if the colour of the light is changed and no reinforcement is administered then the organism learns to response to one colour and not the other for food-­‐ it distinguishes between them • 3. Stimulus control: a behaviour that is influenced by discriminative stimuli is said to be under stimulus control.

Question 55

Explain Schedules of Reinforcement: CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT VS. PARTIAL (INTERMITTENT) REINFORCEMENT

Answer 55

Schedules of reinforcement: • Continuous reinforcement: every response of a particular type is reinforced - Reinforce every correct response - Very fast learning - Very fast extinction • Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: only a portion of particular type are reinforced.

Question 56

Frequency and timing of Consequences in Partial Reinforcement. - lIST AND explain

Answer 56

* 1. Fixed Ratio: reinforce fixed number of correct responses * 2. Fixed Interval: reinforce at fixed time intervals * 3. Variable ratio: Reinforce unpredictable, changing number of correct responses * 4. Variable Interval: reinforce at unpredictable, changing time intervals

Question 57

What is Fixed ratio schedule?

Answer 57

Fixed Ratio schedules: reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses (e.g. reinforcement occurs after every third response, regardless of how long it takes for those responses to occur-­‐ wages)

Question 58

What is Variable - ratio schedule?

Answer 58

2. Variable-­‐ratio schedule: reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all centered around an average (e.g. 3 responses are required for reinforcement-­‐ number of goals shot)

Question 59

What is Fixed Interval Schedule?

Answer 59

3. Fixed interval schedule: first response occurs after a fixed time interval is reinforced (e.g. A rat is reinforced for pressing a level in a 3 minute interval experiment-­‐ it is reinforced the first time it presses it and must wait until the 3 minutes is up to be reinforced again-­‐ no matter how many times it presses it in that time period. If you ask for presents on your birthday you are reinforced, if you ask for them the next day -­‐ no, you have to wait the fixed interval of 356 days)

Question 60

What is Variable Interval Schedule?

Answer 60

4. Variable Interval Schedule: reinforcement is given for the first response that occurs after a variable time interval centered around an average (e.g. on average there is a three minute interval between opportunities to obtain reinforcement-­‐ pop quizzes on average every third week)

Question 61

Explain Delay and Size REINFORCEMENT?

Answer 61

Delay and Size of Reinforcement: • 1. Timing: - Reinforcement strongest when following response-­‐ not two days later • 2. Size of Reinforcer: bigger is better • 3. Reinforcement Schedules: continuous and partial (intermittent)

Question 62

Which is most effective?

Answer 62

* In general ratio schedules provide higher rates of performance than interval schedules. * The most effective reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks is continuous reinforcement-­‐ providing positive reinforcement after every occurrence of the desired behaviour * The best schedule for motivating employees is a variable ratio schedule in which employee behaviour is reinforced after a variable number of times-­‐ as the Reinforcer is never expected at a particular time or after a fixed number of accomplishments; reducing the likelihood of extinction

Question 63

Explain Schedules and Extinction and how to choose.

Answer 63

• Partial reinforcement extinction effect: - Partial reinforcement makes behaviour resistant to extinction: Superstitious behaviour, Gambling • Choose reinforcement schedule based on: - Time behaviour needs to last - Time available for training

Question 64

Explain Escape vs Avoidance conditioning:

Answer 64

• ESCAPE conditioning: the organism learns a response to terminate an aversive stimulus. - If you’re cold, putting on a jumper is negatively reinforced by the desirable consequence that you no longer shiver • AVOIDANCE conditioning: the organism learns a response to avoid an aversive stimulus - You dress warmly to avoid feeling cold in the first place. * Escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning result from negative reinforcement. * According to the two-­‐factor theory of avoidance learning, fear is acquired through classical conditioning. * This fear motivates escape and avoidance, which are negatively reinforced by fear reduction.

Question 65

List 5 ways of Operant Conditioning Application

Answer 65

1• Specialized animal testing: through shaping and chaining animals can learn to perform some truly remarkable behaviour (e.g. trained police dogs) 2• Education and the workplace: efficiency of instructional method and motivation in the workplace. 3• Token Economies: is which desired behaviour are reinforced with tokens (e.g. points, gold stars) that are later turned into other reinforces (prizes, leisure time) 4• Operant conditioning principles have been applied in many settings to enhance performance and reduce behaviour problems. 5• Applied behavioural analysis: which combines a behavioural approach with the scientific method to solve individual and societal problems.

Question 66

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 1. What type of behaviour is involved? 2. How does learning occur? 3. What is the sequence of events?

Answer 66

1. Elicited: CR is a reflex like response (e.g. salivation, fear) triggered by CS (e.g. tone, sight of cars) ``` 2. Through CS-­‐UCS pairings, one stimulus (CS-­‐tone) is associated with another stimulus (UCS-­‐food) ``` 3. The CS occurs before the CR and triggers it (e.g. tone triggers salivation, sight of car triggers fear)

Question 67

OPERANT CONDITIONING 1. What type of behaviour is involved? 2. How does learning occur? 3. What is the sequence of events?

Answer 67

1. Emitted: response (e.g. lever pressing) operates on the environment and is under the organisms control 2. Organism’s responses are associated with reinforcing, punishing or neutral consequences. 3.Consequence follow an organism’s response (e.g. food is delivered after a level is pressed); antecedent stimuli may set the occasion for emitting certain response.

Question 68

What may be some 'crossroads of conditioning?'

Answer 68

• An Organism’s evolutionary history places biological constraints on learning. - Organisms show faster classical conditioning when a CS has evolutionary significance. - It is also difficult to operantly condition animals to perform behaviours contrary to their evolved natural tendencies. - Instinctive drift occurs where an operantly conditioned response reverts to a more natural response. - Preparedness means that through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed (prewired) to lean some associations more easily than others. - Humans develop phobia to many stimuli, but we often fear things that seam to have greater evolutionary significance and are potentially dangerous – as a result of an evolution-­‐based preparedness or due to learning experience that some stimuli are dangerous. • Conditioned taste aversion: a conditioned response in which the taste (and some times the sight and smell) of a particular food becomes disgusting and repulsive) - A conditioned aversion in nature: poisons in a butterfly cause food poisoning in the bird that eats it The bird feels discomfort, vomits and develops a conditioned aversion trigged by the sight of the butterfly and will no longer eat it.

Question 69

explain cognition and conditioning

Answer 69

* 1. S-­‐R (Stimulus-­‐response) psychology: the early belief that learning involves the relatively automatic formation of bonds between stimuli and responses. * 2. S-­‐O-­‐R (Stimulus-­‐organism-­‐response) or cognitive model of learning: in between the stimulus and the response is the organisms cognitive representation of the world. * 3. Insight: a sudden perception of a useful relationship that helps to solve a problem. * 4. Koehler’s study of animal insight and Tolman’s research on cognitive maps suggest that cognition plays a role in learning. * 5. Cognitive map: a mental representation of the spatial layout.

Question 70

explain Cognition in classical Conditioning

Answer 70

Cognition in classical Conditioning • Cognitive interpretations of classical conditioning propose that organisms learn an expectancy that the CS will be followed by the UCS. (Expectancy model) • Belief that the most important factor in classical conditioning is not how often the CS and UCS are paired, but how well the CS predicts (signal) the appearance of the UCS.

Question 71

Explain Cognition in Operant Conditioning

Answer 71

* Cognitive learning theorist view operant conditioning as the development of anexpectancy that certain behaviours will produce certain consequences under certain conditions. * This depends on: 1. The role of awareness: organisms develop an awareness or expectancy of the relation between their responses and probable consequences 2. Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until later, when there is an incentive to perform (remains hidden). Research on latent learning indicates that learning can occur without reinforcement. 3. Self-­‐evaluations are reinforces and punishers: our own self management can determine behaviour.

Question 72

What is observational learning?

Answer 72

• Observational Learning: Observational learning occurs by watching the behaviour of a model.

Question 73

What is social cognitive theory?

Answer 73

Social Cognitive Theory/ Social Learning Theory: emphasizes that people observe the behaviours of models and acquiring the believe that their can produce behaviours to influence events in their lives.

Question 74

• Bandura’s Social cognitive-­‐theory proposes that modeling involves:

Answer 74

- 1. Attention: First we must pay attention to the model’s behaviour - 2. Retention: Second, we must retain the information in memory so that it can be recalled when needed - 3. Reproduction: Third we must be physically capable of reproducing the models behaviour or something similar to it. - 4. Motivation: Fourth we must be motivated to display the behaviour

Question 75

• Observing successful models can increase people’s self-­‐efficacy and motivate them to perform the modeled behaviour.

Answer 75

- Self-­‐efficacy: represents people’s belief that they have the capability to perform behaviours that will produce a desired outcome

Question 76

Explain Bandura's Experiment:

Answer 76

- Children were shown a video of a person hitting a doll: one group saw the behaviour being praised, one group saw the behaviour being punished and one group saw no consequences for the model. They were then placed in the same situation. - Children saw the model being punished-­‐ less likely to be aggressive toward the doll • Research suggests that viewing media violence: 1. Decreases viewers’ concerns about the suffering of victims 2. Habituates us to the sight of violence 3. Provides aggressive models that increase some viewers’ tendency to act aggressively. * Children can learn aggressive behaviour and prosocial behaviours by watching models and modeling is an instructional technique in everyday skill-­‐learning situations. * Psychologists have applied modeling concepts to increase adults’ prosocial behaviour. * Social-­‐cognitive theory has stimulated intervention programs to address social problems, such as illiteracy and HIV/AIDS

Question 77

Explain the ADAPTIVE BRAIN:

Answer 77

* The brains ability to adapt and modify itself in response to experience underlies our ability to learn. No single brain structure regulates all learning. * The hypothalamus and dopamine pathways play a role in enabling us to experience reward. The cerebellum and amygdala are involved in acquiring different types of classically conditioned responses. * As we gain experience at novel tasks-­‐ the brains frontal lobes-­‐ the seat of executive functions such as decision making and planning-­‐ tend to exercise less control land become less active. * Learning also etches its imprints on the brains physical structure - E.g. musicians have a larger amount of the brain dedicated to finger movement • Research demonstrates the learning alters the brain.

Question 78

EXPLAIN LEARNING SUMMARY ON A BIOLOGICAL LEVEL:

Answer 78

* Heredity determines each species potential to learn via habituation, classical and operant conditioning and modeling * Evolution has biologically predisposed each species to learn some associations more readily than others. Multiple brain regions and neurotransmitters underlie our capacity to learn, such as dopamine pathways that help regulate our ability to experience rewards. * Learning produces changes in brain activity and neural circuitry.

Question 79

EXPLAIN LEARNING SUMMARY ON A ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL LEVEL:

Answer 79

* Cultural norms and socialization affect the content of what we learn * The pairing of neutral stimuli with unconditioned stimuli can produce classically conditioned responses. * The consequences of operant behaviour, the pattern of those consequences and the presence of antecedent stimuli affect where and how often the behaviour will recur. • The behaviour of other people-­‐ live or in the media-­‐ may be imitated or provide knowledge.

Question 80

EXPLAIN LEARNING SUMMARY ON A PSYCHOLOGICAL LEVEL:

Answer 80

* Awareness plays a role in learning. Organism’s develop expectancies of CS-­‐UCS associations and response-­‐ consequence contingencies. * As illustrated by superstitious behaviour, perceived associations can influence behaviour even when they are inaccurate. * Learning can provide knowledge, which may be demonstrated overtly in behaviour at a later time. * Self-­‐evaluations, which may general feelings of pride and shame, can serve as internal reinforcer and punishers