1
Q
Encoding
A
- the process of acquiring information and transferring it to LTM
2
Q
Retrieval
A
- bringing information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory
3
Q
Maintenance rehearsal
A
- little or no encoding and therefore poor memory
- ex. repeating a phone number over and over won’t put it into LTM after you’ve successfully written it down
4
Q
Elaborative rehearsal
A
- considering meanings or making connections to other information in order to remember something better
- better memory than maintenance rehearsal
5
Q
Levels of processing theory
A
- the idea that memory depends on how information is encoded (transferred to LTM), with better memory being achieved when processing is deep than when processing is shallow
6
Q
depth of processing
A
- distinguishes between deep and shallow processing
7
Q
Shallow processing
A
- involves little attention to meaning
8
Q
Deep processing
A
- involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an item’s meaning and its relationship to something else
- results in better memory than shallow processing
9
Q
paired-associate learning
A
- testing whether connecting words by creating visual representations in your mind would help with memory
- a learning task in which participants are first presented with pairs of words, then one word of each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word
10
Q
self-reference effect
A
- memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself
- leads to a richer understanding
11
Q
Generation effect
A
- generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention
12
Q
Retrieval cue
A
- a word or stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory
13
Q
Is recognition better than recall
A
- yes
- ex. better at instantly recognizing someone than trying to remember where you met someone that one time
14
Q
Encoding specificity
A
- refers to the idea that memory retrieval is improved when the encoding context is the same as the retrieval context
15
Q
Decay
A
- memories gradually get weaker over time and fade from LTM
16
Q
Proactive interference
A
- previously learned material interferes with the learning of new material
17
Q
when is recall better than recognition?
A
- when recall is cued i.e. encoding specificity
18
Q
What makes a good cue?
A
encoding specificity hypothesis:
when the cue is in the same context as where the memory was originally encoded
(context-dependent memory)
19
Q
Retrieval practice effect
A
- when practicing memory retrieval increases elaboration (enhancing and deepened understanding), which increases performance on memory tasks
- looking at level 5 flash cards even though you know them already helps you remember them for longer (boring and easy is good)
20
Q
Testing effect
A
- enhanced performance due to retrieval practice
- ex. being tested is important for learning (ex. cue cards)
- testing is a form of generation because it requires active involvement with the material
21
Q
Why is encoding necessary for successful memory?
A
- it is the way information can be transferred to LTM and therefore retrieved later
- allows for information to be retained properly
22
Q
transferring to LTM
Elaboration
A
- thinking about what you are learning and giving it meaning by relating it to other things that you know
- becomes easier as you learn more because you’re simply adding to a structure
23
Q
Transferring to LTM
Organizing
A
- creates a framework that helps relate some info to other info to make it more meaningful (ex. mindmaps or cheat sheets)
- helps reduce the load on your memory
- relates to chunking
24
Q
Spacing effect
A
- the advantage in performance caused by short study sessions separated by breaks from studying
25
How can location serve as a retrieval cue?
- returning to the location that a memory was formed at can help bring it back
26
free recall
- asked to recall from your mind
27
cued recall
- given cues to help with recall
- typically words or phrases
28
Retrieval can be increased by matching the conditions at retrieval to the conditions that existed at encoding.
What are the 3 situations in which this is true?
1. encoding specificity
2. state-dependent learning
3. transfer-appropriate processing
29
Encoding specificity
- principle that states that we encode information along with its context
- can explain how location is used as a retrieval cue
30
State-dependent learning
- learning that is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or state of awareness
- idea that memory is better when a person's mood during retrieval matches his or her mood during encoding
31
Transfer-appropriate processing
- retrieval is better if the same cognitive tasks are involved during both encoding and retrieval
32
Consolidation
- transferring new memories from their initial fragile state to a permanent state where they are resistant to disruption
33
Synaptic consolidation
- structural changes at the nerve junction (synapse)
- can take minutes or hours
- short term stabilization
- happens quickly then systems takes over
34
Systems consolidation
- gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain
- can take months or years
- rewires the system
- process of reactivation
35
Neural circuits
- interconnected groups of neurons
36
What are the 2 types of consolidation?
1. synaptic
2. systems
37
how is synaptic and systems consolidation connected?
- they aren't separate
- they work together but at different speeds
- synaptic works fast, as new info comes in
- systems works to make changes according to the new info
38
# synaptic consolidation
What is Hebb's theory of changes in the synapse?
- learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes that take place at the synapse
- idea that repeated activity can strengthen the synapse by causing structural changes, greater transmission release, and increased firing
- one cell setting off the next will eventually lead to stronger connections (fire together, wire together)
39
# synaptic consolidation
What does Hebb suggest about how experiences are represented by neurons
- if 2 neurons repeatedly fire at the same time during an experience, the connection (synapse) between them becomes stronger
- this increased strength means the neurons are more likely to fire together in the future which creates a memory trace of the experience
- ex. repeated firing/practice will help form neural connections and help with consolidating memories
40
# synaptic consolidation
Long-term potentiality (usefulness in the future)
- enhanced firing for neurons after repeated stimulation
- every time we learn something new, our brain connections change
- When two neurons communicate frequently, the synapse between them becomes more effective at transmitting signals
41
Standard model of consolidation
- hippocampus is key for memory but it isn't where memories are stored
- memories are stored in the cortex but it needs the hippocampus to keep firing those areas of the brain in order to increase connections
- eventually, the hippocampus can back off and intercortical connections remain
42
Reactivation
- the hippocampus "teaches" the cortex
- it is important during the early stages of memory because it is replaying the neural activity associated with a memory and sending this info to the cortex
- helps form connections between the various cortical areas
- hippocampus is like a clamp waiting for the glue to dry
43
Retrograde amnesia
- loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury
- inability to remember things from the past
44
Graded amnesia
- part of retrograde amnesia
- memory loss is most severe for events occuring closest to the injury but not as bad for things that made it to LTM
- connected to the cortical connections not being finished yet (hippo still holding)
45
Anterograde amnesia
- inability to form new memories
46
Multiple trace model of consolidation
- idea that the hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories
- suggests that early in consolidation the hippocampus communicates with cortical areas and that it remains active
- works particularly for episodic memories because you don't need the hippocampus for semantic memories
47
Multivoxel pattern analysis
- determines the pattern of voxel activation by specfific stimuli within various structures
- in contrast, fmri only determines which areas are activated
48
How does sleep help consolidation?
- elimitates possibly distracting stimuli
- chooses more important memories and enhances consolidation
- selectively choose things that we think will be useful later
49
reconsolidation
- the idea that when a memory is retrieved, it becomes fragile again and will need to be reconsolidated
- the process of updating memories
50
Temporal context model
- concept that old circumstances can become associated with new memories, without changing the content of existing memories
51
Metacognition
- knowledge about our cognitive processes
- poor metacognition leads to illusions of learning (ex. highlighting)
52
Metamemory
- knowledge about our memory
- ex. knowing we should make a note or we will forget it
53
Metacomprehension
- knowledge about our understanding
- ex. when we test ourselves while studying we are challenging our knowledge of our understanding
- we assume we know more than we do
54
Introspection
- looking inward at our own cognitive ability
- we think we're good at it but we're not - introspection illusion
55
Flashbulb memory
- very vivid memories that we insist are accurate
- like a normal memory but we are overly confident about it's accuracy
- confidence doesn't equal accuracy
56
Dunning-Kruger effect
- the less someone knows about a topic, the more likely they are to overestimate how well they know it
