For memory strategies to be effective, what must a child learn when self regulating?
1) Determine Goal
2) Select Strategy
3) Use Strategy
4) Monitor Strategy
How is knowledge and memory formed in networks?
Individuals remember items in relation to:
- Categories
- Actions
- Specific Instances
- Scripts
As we grow our webs become more elaborate and help us form and recall memory.
How are children’s eyewitness testimonies limited?
- They have limited networks
- They’re susceptible to misinformation
What was the purpose and procedure of the Sam Stone study?
The Sam Stone Study was designed to examine how stereotypes and suggestive questioning can distort children’s memories and eyewitness testimony.
Children were told that someone named Sam was going to visit their class. They were randomly assigned to four experimental conditions:
Control group – no stereotype and no suggestive questions
Stereotype group – stereotype introduced before the event
Suggestion group – misleading questions after the event
Stereotype + suggestion group – both manipulations.
What were the results and findings of the Sam Stone study?
Children exposed to both good or bad stereotypes and suggestive questioning were most likely to falsely accuse Sam Stone. Some children even claimed they personally saw events that never occurred.
Findings showed that children’s memories can be strongly influenced by stereotypes and suggestive questioning
What are reasons for the inability to plan ahead?
- Lack of ability to inhibit the urge to “get moving”
- Limits of executive functioning (e.g., working memory)
- When they do plan, plans often fail, so why bother?
- Have learned that parents will plan for them
What is Siegler’s overlapping waves model of strategy use?
Over the course of development, children use a variety of strategies and the degree of reliance changes with experience/favouritism.
What factors cause developmental improvements in children’s writing?
Greater Knowledge
Organization
Greater facility with mechanical requirements
Greater revision skills
What strategies do young authors use?
Young writers often use a knowledge-telling strategy, writing down information on the topic as they retrieve it from memory.
During adolescence, what strategy do writers begin to use?
A knowledge-transforming strategy: deciding what information to include and how best to organize it for the point they wish to convey to their reader.
When do children develop mechanical requirements of writing?
When they master letter writing first.
Research shows that when youngsters are absorbed by the task of printing letters correctly, the quality of their writing usually suffers.
What evidence shows that basic number skills originate in infancy?
Research using habituation experiments shows that infants can distinguish quantities. When shown a picture with a different number of objects (e.g., one vs three), their attention increases.
Infants as young as 4 months can distinguish between quantities such as two vs. three (and sometimes three vs. four) When sets include four or more objects, infants distinguish them only when one set is at least twice as large as the other.
By 10 months when watching an adult place different numbers of crackers in two containers they typically reach for the container with more crackers.
What evidence suggests that 5-month-old infants can perform simple addition and subtraction?
5-month-olds watch as one toy mouse is placed behind a screen and then a second mouse is added. When the screen is removed, infants look longer if only one mouse is revealed instead of two, suggesting they expected 1 + 1 = 2. Similarly, when two mice are shown and one is removed, infants are surprised if two mice remain.
These findings indicate that infants can perform very simple addition and subtraction with small numbers, though their methods are basic and different from those of older children.
How do 6-month-old infants demonstrate sensitivity to ratio?
They look longer when shown a new ratio (e.g., 4:1) after being habituated to a different ratio (e.g., 2:1), showing they can detect proportional differences between quantities.
How does working memory relate to early numerical skills?
Supports children’s ability to process and manipulate numerical information.
What cognitive abilities are important for preschoolers’ numerical calculation?
Visual-spatial memory and mental models are especially important for preschoolers’ early math skills.
How do numerical processing skills change from preschool to Grade 1?
Preschoolers rely more on visual-spatial memory, while Grade 1 children rely more on verbal problem solving and phonological memory.
What is meant by nonsymbolic versus symbolic number processing what are their factors?
Nonsymbolic processing involves understanding quantities without number words or symbols (present in infancy), while symbolic processing involves understanding culturally learned number symbols and develops later.
Biological predispositions and environmental experiences interact to support the development from nonsymbolic to symbolic number understanding.
What are the two “core systems” of number proposed by researchers?
One system represents small numbers precisely (e.g., 1 vs. 3), and the other represents larger numbers approximately (based on ratios).
What are the three basic principles of counting identified by Gelman and Meck?
The one-to-one principle: Each object counted must be assigned one and only one number name.
the stable-order principle: Number names must always be recited in the same consistent order.
the cardinality principle: The last number name stated represents the total number of objects counted.
What arithmetic principle do many 5-year-olds implicitly understand?
The commutative property of addition (e.g., 4 + 2 = 2 + 4).
How do preschoolers typically misrepresent numbers on a number line from 0 to 100?
They feel like differences between small numbers are huge. They spread out smaller numbers (1–10) and compress spacing between larger numbers (10–100)
Do children learn addition strategies in a fixed sequence?
According to the overlapping waves model, children use multiple strategies and choose among them depending on the problem. They usually try to retrieve the answer from memory first, and if unsure, they use backup strategies like counting aloud or on their fingers.
how could achievement gaps between American students and students in other industrialized (especially Asian) countries—and between Indigenous and non-Indigenous children in Canada—be reduced?
Changing teaching practices and attitudes toward achievement would begin to reduce the gap between American students and students in other industrialized countries, particularly Asian countries. This could also be applied to the problem in Canada of the disparity between educational achievements of Indigenous and non-Indigenous children
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Chapter 1: Introduction18
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Chapter 213
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Chapter 3: Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn33
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Chapter 4 -- Human Growth22
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Chapter 5 -- Perceptual and Motor Development35
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Chapter 6 -- Theories of Cognitive Development26
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Chapter 7 -- Memory28
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Chapter 8: Intelligence and Individual Differences in Cognition19
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Chapter 9 --28
