Chapter 7: Motivation

Question 1

Two approaches: What motivates instrumental behaviour?

Answer 1

1. Associative structure of instrumental conditioning
   • Pavlov
   • Thorndike
   • Narrow approach
2. Behavioural regulation
   • Skinner
   • Broad approach

Question 2

Three-term Contingency

Answer 2

• More than just a response and reinforcer:
• Stimulus context (S)
• Instrumental response (R)
• Response outcome (O)

Question 3

1. Associative structure: S-R-O

Answer 3

• The three terms (S, R and O) allow for many different types of associations to be formed (what is it that the animal is learning? Why does it perform this behaviour? Is it because it sees the S, or because it is thinking about the O?)

Question 4

S-R association

Answer 4

• Thorndike thought that the S-R association was key to instrumental conditioning
• Reinforcers merely work to develop the association between S and R
• Implications: No learning about the reinforcer (O) or R-O
• This idea was mostly abandoned in the 1960’s
• However, currently used to describe human habits, including drug addiction
• e.g., Do you sit in the same seat each time you come to class?

looking for a general outcome (I.e. going to class looking for a better grade) but the particulars are done without thinking (i.e. where you sit in class)

Question 5

S-O Association and Expectancy

Answer 5

• Expectancy of reward (O) forms when (S) present
• Pavlovian conditioning may be involved in instrumental learning via S-O pairings
• Instrumental response motivated by two factors:
1. S-R association
2. S-O association
• Precursor to modern two-process theory

Question 6

Two-Process Theory

Rescorla & Solomon, 1967

Answer 6

Assumes two distinct types of learning:
• Pavlovian Conditioning
• Instrumental Conditioning

S-O association activates an emotional state which motivates instrumental behaviour (R)
• Type of emotional state depends on types of reinforcer (O)

How do you test this idea….
• Pavlovian expectancy motivates instrumental
behaviour
• Presenting a Pavlovian CS should alter
instrumental behaviour
• Test with a transfer-of-control experiment

Question 7

Pavlovian Instrumental Transfer Test

Answer 7

• Three steps
1. Instrumental conditioning*
2. Pavlovian conditioning*
3. Instrumental responding with presentations of Pavlovian CS
• Predictions
• If Pavlovian S-O motivates, then responding should increase when CS is presented

tests two process theory

• Positive and negative emotions can be elicited by CS
• Positive emotions increase instrumental responding
• Negative emotions decrease instrumental responding
• However, The CS can elicit more than just positive or negative emotional states
- The CS can elicit reward-specific expectancies

Question 8

Transfer of Control Experiment

Lovibond, 1983

Answer 8

Trained rabbits in an operant task

Followed this by classical conditioning
• Exp. 1 & 2, CS+
• Exp. 3, CS+ and CS-

Tested the effects of the CSs on operant responding

rabbits pressed head against lever to get food
trained with particular stimulus turning on to get food (had no access to lever at this point)
trained with CS+ and CS- (two diff emotional states)
now if we present rabbit with the lever, will they response more if presence with the CS+ at the same time

Effects of Excitatory CS on Operant Responding
• Instrumental responding increased when CS+ was presented in the experimental group (paired)
• Instrumental responding stayed the same in the unpaired control group

Effects of an Inhibitory CS on Operant Responding
• Instrumental responding increased when CS+ was presented in the experimental group (paired)
• Instrumental responding did NOT decrease with CS- presentation
• BUT, presentation of CS+ and CS- simultaneous also did NOT increase instrumental responding

Question 9

Reward specific expectancies – Transfer of control with 2 CSs

Answer 9

• Pavlovian training with 2 CS’s
• One CS is for food
• Another CS is for water
• Test both CS (independently) in Instrumental transfer test of either food or water outcome

IF positive emotional state
• Increased responding to both CS’s (when signaling one or the other)
IF reward specific
• Increased responding for CS that matches current instrumental reinforcer

Question 10

Two-process theory ignores ______ __________

Answer 10

• Two-process theory ignores R-O associations
• This is counterintuitive considering how humans verbally describe their behaviour
• e.g., I am doing this (R) to get this (O)

Question 11

How to test for R-O associations?

Answer 11

How to test for R-O association?
• Devalue the O
• Then test for R
• remember US devaluation?
       (Tested for S-R versus S-S learning)

O devaluation
• Rats reinforced for pushing a
rod to the left or right
• One direction = food 
• Other direction = sugar water
• After training, devalue one
reinforcer via LiCl injections
• Test preference

IF S-O association:
• decrease in both responses because devaluation had effected the
properties of S (the lever, the chamber, etc.)

IF R-O association:
• One response (the one that results in the devalued outcome) to be
lower, suggesting that separate R-O associations were formed
• Difficult to explain different responses to different stimuli

IF S-R association:
• No change in responding as model does not include the reinforcer (O)

Question 12

S(R-O) Hierarchical relations

Answer 12

• R-O associations can’t act alone to produce instrumental behaviour
• Response activates an expectancy of a reinforcer, but this does not tell us why the response happens in the first place
• R-O association is activated in the presence of S
• Remember, Law of Effect suggests that S activates R, and this association is “stamped in” by O
• Skinner’s (1938) three term contingency

Question 13

Drive Reduction Theory

Answer 13

Hull (1943): Events are reinforcing if they reduce a physiological drive
• Obtain water if thirsty
• Acquire conversation if lonely

Establishing operation: Making a rat hungry so it will work for food

Question 14

Drive Reduction Theory is not…

Answer 14

Not a comprehensive theory of reinforcement
• Rats will press a lever to obtain saccharin
• People will pay money for ‘frivolous’ goods
• Too many reinforcers that neither reduce
drives nor are associated with primary
reinforcers

Question 15

Consummatory-Response Theory

Answer 15

• Reinforcement is caused by access to species-specific unconditioned responses (e.g., chewing and swallowing)
• Reinforcers as responses, not stimuli
• However, many CSs have appetitive value even if they do not always have consummatory responses

Question 16

Relative Value Theory

Answer 16

•With total freedom, different behaviours have
different probabilities of occurring
• e.g., watching Netflix → high probability, studying →low probability

•Premack Principle:
H = high probability response
L = low probability response 
•L→H, reinforces L 
•H→L, does not reinforce H

Question 17

How to test Premack Principle

Answer 17

1. Establish baseline responding of animals for
   different behaviours
2. Instrumental conditioning procedure with:
   • L→H
   • H→L
   • Implications: Any high probability response
   can serve as a reinforcer for a lower probability response

Question 18

Premack Principle & Children

Answer 18

free-eating and pinball playing

Any high probability response can serve as a reinforcer for a lower probability response

Question 19

Applications of Premack Principle

Answer 19

Applications of Premack Principle
• Clinical patients
• Find out what behaviour is reinforcing (high probability of occurring) for each individual
• Delayed Echolalia vs. Perseverative behaviours in children with autism
• Notion that reinforcers are responses, and not
stimuli

Question 20

Premack Principle and BMod

Answer 20

• Data from 2 children with autism
• Individual preferred behaviour was a better
reinforcer than food

Any activity…
…could be a reinforcer…
… if it is more likely (“preferred”) than the operant response.
To determine what reinforcers to use for an individual, look at what they do

Question 21

Response-Deprivation hypothesis (Disequilibrium Model)

Answer 21

Behaviour is reinforcing when the individual is prevented from engaging in the behaviour at its normal frequency
• a sated rat will not perform an operant response for food

Premack realized restricting access was important this, but it was not central to his theory

• Deviations from Premack Principle: L probability can reinforce H probability if L behaviour is restricted to below-baseline levels
• Reinforcer produced by operant contingency itself
• Implications: Any behaviour can be reinforcing if access to that behaviour is restricted

Question 22

Response-Deprivation hypothesis (Disequilibrium Model)
Premack (1962)
rat study

Answer 22

water deprived rat

• Water is H
• running is L
• rat will run to drink

Unlimited water

• Water is L
• running is H
• rat will drink to run

Question 23

Homeostasis of Behaviour Distribution

Answer 23

• Assumption that all animals have a preferred

distribution of activities

Question 24

Behavioural Bliss Point

Answer 24

• Organisms thought to have a preferred distribution of behaviour (Bliss Point)

Question 25

Behavioural regulation focuses on how response-reinforcer contingencies force animals away from ___________. How?

Answer 25

their bliss point 1. Measure behaviours performed • w/ no constraints 2. Place constraints on behavioural allocation • Impose instrumental contingency

Question 26

Slater & Wood (1977)

Answer 26

Average of 12, 30-min cycles of a male zebra finch • 1. Measure behaviours in unconstrained situation 2. Place constraints on behavioural allocation • Puts pressure on Bliss Point • Act to defend challenges to Bliss Point - But requirements of contingency (may) make achieving Bliss Point impossible • Compromise required • Redistribute responses so as to get as close to Bliss Point as possible

Question 27

Minimum-deviation

Answer 27

Minimum-deviation Time spent playing video games (min) vs. Time spent studying (min) Organism will redistribute its behaviour to minimize the deviations of the two behaviours from the bliss point

Question 28

Reinforcement effect

Answer 28

* Increase performance of the instrumental response from baseline responding * e.g., more time spent studying • Results from behavioural-regulatory mechanisms that function to minimize deviations from the bliss point However…. • There may be many other behaviour that the animal may engage in • Alternate sources of reinforcement • e.g., texting or Netflix

Question 29

Behavioural Economics

Answer 29

• How do organisms organize their behaviour based on the rules of the system? • Microeconomic choices are strongly driven by cost, which is an instrumental contingency • Elasticity of demand

Question 30

Behavioural Economics | - Elasticity determinants

Answer 30

``` Determinants of elasticity: • Competitors / Substitutes • Range of pricing • Income • Complementary Commodities ```

Question 31

Response-Allocation in General

Answer 31

• Behaviour systems are complex and organisms array their behaviour to produce maximal benefit • Reinforcement and punishment direct changes in this allocation

Question 32

Behaviour is reinforced by the opportunity to | engage in _______ ________ _______

Answer 32

Behaviour is reinforced by the opportunity to | engage in other, more desirable behaviours

Question 33

we can create a reinforcer by...

Answer 33

We can “create” a reinforcer by restricting access to it (reorganize behaviour)

Question 34

We can gauge “desirability” by...

Answer 34

We can gauge “desirability” by noting baseline | activity levels

Question 35

Are Rewards Bad? (Paul Chance) (7)

Answer 35

1. Whenever possible use intangible rewards. Don’t provide a toy if a compliment will do. 2. Avoid using rewards as incentives. Instead of saying, “If you do X, I’ll give you Y,” wait for the behavior (or for something approximating the behavior) and then provide the reward without having promised it. 3. Reward at a high rate in the early stages of learning, and gradually reduce the frequency of rewards as learning progresses. 4. Reward only behavior that you want repeated. If you don’t want a child to whine and complain, don’t provide rewards to quiet her when she whines and complains. 5. Remember that what is an effective reward for one person may not be effective for another. Praise, recognition, approval, status, awards, and free time are usually rewarding, but not everyone marches to the same drummer. 6. Reward success, and set standards so that success is achievable. 7. Bring attention to the intrinsic rewards the activity itself offers. Point out, for example, the fun to be had from word play in poetry, or the fun of discovering something from a hands-on experiment.