1
Q
When do children shift to gaining more of their language input from text?
A
Around 8-10 years old
2
Q
What is the prereading stage composed of?
A
Oral language, print awareness, and phonological awareness
3
Q
What are the five stages that follow the prereading stage?
A
Initial reading/decoding stage, confirmation, fluency, and ungluing from print, reading to learn the new, multiple viewpoints, and construction and reconstruction
4
Q
Describe the initial reading stage
A
- 5-7 years old (kindergarten through first grade)
- Begin to decode (sound out) words by associating letters with corresponding sounds in spoken words
- Three phases
- First phase: substitution errors in which the word is semantically and syntactically plausible
- Second phase: substitution errors in which the word graphically resembles the original printed word
- Third phase: substitution errors in which the word graphically resembles the original word, but is also semantically probable
5
Q
What is the first phase in the initial reading stage?
A
First phase: substitution errors in which the word is semantically and syntactically plausible
6
Q
What is the second phase in the initial reading stage?
A
Second phase: substitution errors in which the word graphically resembles the original printed word
7
Q
What is the third phase in the initial reading stage?
A
Third phase: substitution errors in which the word graphically resembles the original word, but is also semantically probable
8
Q
Describe the confirmation, fluency, and ungluing from print stage
A
- 7-8 years old (second to third grade)
- Hone decoding skills and become more confident in their reading skills (confirmation)
- Gain fluency in reading (efficient, well-paced, and free of errors)
- Unglue from print (reading becomes more automatic and less focused on the print, more focused on the meaning of the print)
9
Q
What does gaining fluency in reading consist of?
A
Reading is efficient, well-paced, and free of errors
10
Q
What does ungluing from print mean?
A
Reading becomes more automatic and less focused on the print, more focused on the meaning of the print
11
Q
Describe the reading to learn the new stage
A
- 9-14 years old (fourth grade to eighth or ninth grade)
- Gain new information and read to learn
- Two phases
- Phase one: reading beyond egocentric purposes
- Phase two: reading at an adult level
12
Q
Describe the multiple viewpoints stage
A
- 14 to 18 years old (high school period)
- Navigate more difficult concepts and texts
13
Q
Describe the construction and reconstruction stage
A
- 18+ years old
- Reading selectively to suit personal purposes
14
Q
What is metalinguistic competence?
A
The ability to think about and analyze language as an object of attention
15
Q
What is phonological awareness?
A
Children’s sensitivity to the sound structure of language
16
Q
What are some components of phonological awareness?
A
- Phonemic awareness: attendance to the phonemes in words and syllables (awareness of the smallest units of sound, blending sounds, segmenting sounds from words, and manipulating sounds)
- Awareness of the distinct sounds in syllables and words usually develops around age 5-6 (blending tasks)
- The ability to segment sounds from words (age 5-6, segmentation tasks)
Sound manipulation develops around age 7
17
Q
What is figurative language?
A
Language used in a nonliteral and often abstract manner (a metalinguistic ability)
18
Q
What are the types of figurative language?
A
Metaphors, similies, hyperboles, idioms, irony and sarcasm, and proverbs
19
Q
What are metaphors?
A
- Metaphors: conveys similarity between two ideas or objects by stating that they are the same
- Consists of the topic/target, which is compared to the vehicle/base
- The comparison is called the ground
- Can be predictive or proportional
- Understanding and use of metaphors and other figurative language increases with age
20
Q
What are similies?
A
- Smilies: compare two objects or ideas using “like” or “as”
- Contain a topic, vehicle, and ground
- Make the comparison explicit
- The ability to understand and produce similies and metaphors is related to measures of general cognition, language, and academic achievement
21
Q
What is a hyperbole?
A
An exaggeration for emphasis or effect
22
Q
What are idioms?
A
- Idioms: expressions containing a literal and figurative meaning
- Opaque idioms: have little relationship between literal and figurative interpretation
- Transparent idiom: figurative meaning is an extension of the literal meaning
- Opaque and less frequently used idioms are the most difficult to understand
23
Q
What are irony and sarcasm?
A
- A speaker’s intentions differ from the literal meaning of the words
- Irony: unmet general expectations that are not the fault of an individual
- Sarcasm: refers to a specific individual’s failure to meet an expectation
- 9-10 year olds can distinguish between an individual’s intentions and consider sarcastic comments to be more negative
- School-age children’s understanding of sarcasm and irony is related to their Theory of Mind
24
Q
What are proverbs?
A
- Proverbs: statements expressing the conventional values, beliefs, and wisdom of a society
- Difficult to master
- Serve a variety of communication functions: commenting, interpreting, advising, warning, and encouraging
- The presence of a supportive linguistic environment can facilitate adolescents’ understanding of proverbs
- Understanding proverbs is correlated with success in math and literature
25
What aspects of language form develop during the school-age years and beyond?
- Phonological development: morphophonemic development (development in the interaction between morphological and phonological processes)
- Morphological development: use of derivational prefixes and suffixes
- Complex syntax development: using a more decontextualized language style (persuasive writing, etc.)
26
What aspects of language content develop during the school-age years and beyond?
- Lexical development
- Understanding of multiple meanings
- Understanding of lexical (words with multiple meanings) and sentential (ambiguous sentences) ambiguity
- Development of literate language (language that is highly decontextualized)
27
How can lexical development be learned?
- Direct instruction: learning the meaning of a word directly from a more knowledgeable source
- Contextual abstraction: using context clues to determine the meanings of unfamiliar words
- Pragmatic inferences: bring an individual’s personal world knowledge or background knowledge to the text
- Logical inferences: use only the information the text provides
- Morphological analysis: involves analyzing the lexical, inflectional, and derivational morphemes of unfamiliar words to infer their meaning
28
What is literate language?
Language that is highly decontextualized
29
What are the four features of literate language that children learn to use?
- Elaborated noun phrases (a group of words consisting of a noun and one or more modifiers providing additional information about the nouns)
- Adverbs (a syntactic form that modifies verbs and enhances the explicitness of action and event descriptions)
- Conjunctions (words that organize information and clarify relationships among elements)
- Mental and linguistic verbs (various acts of thinking and speaking, respectively)
30
What is functional flexibility?
The ability to use language for a variety of communicative functions
31
What is expository discourse?
Language used to convey information
32
What is persuasive discourse?
Language used to convince another listener or an audience to adopt a certain stance or to take action consistent with a particular point of view; the seven skills required for successful persuasion are:
- Adust to listener characteristics
- State advantages as a reason to comply
- Anticipate and reply to counterarguments
- Use positive techniques such as politeness and bargaining as strategies to increase compliance
- Avoid negative strategies such as whining and begging
- Generate a large number and variety of arguments
- Control the discourse assertively
33
Conversational abilities improve by:
- Staying on topic longer
- Having extended dialogues with other people that last for several conversational turns
- Making a larger number of relevant and factual comments
- Shifting smoothly from one topic to another
- Adjusting the content and style of their speech to the listener’s thoughts and feelings
34
What are the different types of narratives?
- Recounts: involve telling a story about personal experiences or retelling a story the person has heard or read
- Accounts: spontaneous personal narratives
- Event casts: describe a current situation or event as it is happening
- Fictionalized stories: invented narratives that usually have a main character who must overcome a challenge or solve a problem
35
What are the elements of mature narratives?
Multiple episodes and story grammar
36
What are appendages?
Cues that a narrator is telling or ending a story
37
What are orientations?
Elements that provide more detail to the setting and characters
38
What are story evaluations?
Ways to convey narrator or character perspectives
39
Assessment types in school-age years
- Formative evaluations: inform potential language-learning activities or measure the language development process
- Summative evaluations: measure the products and final outcomes of language learning and development
- Screenings
- Comprehensive evaluations
- Progress monitoring assessments
40
Assessment of language form involves:
Measuring phonological (GFTA-2) and syntactic (language samples using communication or terminable units - C or T units) development
41
Assessment of language content involves:
- Measurement of lexical meaning
- Measurement of abstract relational meaning
- Measurement of figurative language
42
What is complex syntactic development?
Developmentally advanced grammatical structures that mark a “literate” language style
43
Children do not begin to use dictionaries to learn word meanings until...?
About 2nd grade
44
Children with a better theory of mind are more effective at?
Lying
45
At around age 9, children begin to use more sophisticated strategies such as:
Providing additional background information and defining terms to repair breakdowns when they occur
Normal Language Development
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