Chapter 8

Question 1

To what Extent is Behaviour Determined by Personality or Context?

Answer 1

1. Personality Perspective (Trait Theories) say that behaviour is consistent across situations due to stable traits (OCEAN)
2. Situational Perspective (Social Psychology) says that behaviour changes based on context (ex. social norms, culture, environment, ADHD example)
3. Interactionist Approach says that personality AND context shape behaviour

Question 2

Mischel’s Critique of Trait Personality

Answer 2

• Walter Mischel challenged the idea that personality traits consistently predict behaviour across different situations
• He found that context influences behaviour more than fixed traits
• Underlined how situational variability is an important source of information, as behaviour is not fixed (Tony’s example)

Question 3

Self Presentation Biases and Validity Scales

Answer 3

• There are three types: malingering, faking good, and random responses
• They all have validity check points to check for these 3 issues, like intentional double negative questions

Question 4

Malingering

Answer 4

• Intentionally exaggerating symptoms for external gain
• Avoiding responsibility, obtaining benefits like AISH funding, sources/services, winning a court case in case of accident)

Question 5

Faking Good

Answer 5

• Presenting oneself in an overly positive light to appear socially desirable
• In job application or custody cases

Question 6

Random Responding

Answer 6

• Lack of effort, confusion, or disengagement which can indicate cognitive difficulties, distress, or malingering
• This may indicate low motivation (intro psych research credits), cognitive impairment and intentional deception

Question 7

Developing Culturally useful measures

Answer 7

• The content must be applicable across different groups (screening for inconsistent jargon like smack vs spank)
• Constructs must be related in similar ways across different groups (links between perfectionism and depression present in some countries but not others)
• The cut-off scores developed with one group must apply to other groups (problematic levels of dependency)
• The factor structure must be the same (underlying construct whether anxiety, depression, bipolar, etc. should hold the same across groups, regardless of variability)

Question 8

Jayawickreme et al. (2012) Sri Lankans affected by war

Answer 8

• Examined war-affected Sri Lankans and the effectiveness of depression and PTSD measures
• Commonly used western measures of depression and PTSD predicting functioning
• Prediction enhanced when local wording used (higher accuracy and perception)

Question 9

Culturally Appropriate Assessment when there are measures for a group

Answer 9

• Use measures that have been validated for the specific group
• Consult published norms in interpreting findings
• Use multiple assessment methods to reduce bias (not just questionnaire as likely to overpathologize and clients may have different/generalized interpretations of clinical definitions)

Question 10

Culturally Appropriate Assessment when there are no measures for a group

Answer 10

• Avoid using scores and rely more heavily on interview
• Use tests to generate hypotheses only, not to define diagnoses
• Explicitly acknowledge questionable validity of test with this group

Question 11

Steps to translate a measure

Answer 11

• Translate from language 1 to language 2, then back translate
• Compare the 2 versions and adjust as required
• Pilot test translated version for comprehensibility and adjust as required
• Test reliability of translated version in larger sample and adjust as required
• Re-standardize scores with norms from 2nd language group
• Study construct validity of translated measure

Question 12

Three key criteria a test must meet for clinical utility

Answer 12

1. Do clinicians find questions, tools and measures useful/usable?
2. Is there replicated evidence of reliability and validity?
3. Does it make a difference?

Question 13

Do clinicians find questions, tools and measures useful/usable?

Answer 13

• Does the test provide meaningful insights for assessment, diagnosis or intervention? (are results on PAI test accurate or over-reported, should they be narrowed down, can they lead to diagnosis or should be referred to for generating hypotheses?)
  2. Is it efficient and easy to administer (PAI has lower Grade level, so can be used more often)

Question 14

Is there replicated evidence of reliability and validity?

Answer 14

• Reliability: Does the test produce consistent results the first and replicated times?
• Validity: Does the test measure what it claims to measure? (PAI and MCAI should have significant overlap as they are seemingly testing the same construct)

Question 15

Does it make a difference?

Answer 15

• Does using the measure improve clinical outcomes?
• Does it give us better understanding of the client?
• Does it lead to better treatment planning or more accurate diagnoses (equestrian or animal therapy)?
• Does it influence real-world decision-making (government, school placements, therapy selection, etc.)?

Question 16

Self-Report Personality Measures

Answer 16

• Self-report personality measures are based on the assumption that individuals can accurately assess and report their own traits, thoughts and behaviours and if there is a lack of such ability (stroke patients w memory impairments) these tests are not useful
• Based on idea that we are good sources of information about ourselves, but is it true?
• Brings out the question of whether “digging” leads to self-discovery (NEO questionnaire for the Big 5 OCEAN)

Question 17

Are we good sources of information about ourselves

Answer 17

• We have direct access to our thoughts, emotions, and motivations
• However, biases can distort our responses (self-enhancement, social desirability)

Question 18

Do others see us the way we see ourselves

Answer 18

• Sometimes, external observers (friends, therapists) may have a more objective view, hence why informants are often used
• Personality traits like extraversion may be more accurately assessed by others

Question 19

Can we truly know ourselves?

Answer 19

• Self-reflection can enhance self-awareness but may also reinforce pre-existing biases
• Cultural and personal factors influence how we interpret our personality

Question 20

Does self-reflection lead to self-discovery

Answer 20

Some argue that deeper introspection leads to greater self-awareness and personal growth, some overthink more than others which may impact clarity

Question 21

Self-Report Personality Measures Use

Answer 21

• Many measures available that assess a wide range of psychopathological conditions (including disordered personality characteristics)
• Used in clinical, research, and forensic settings and used for diagnosis monitoring progress
• Relies on self reported info

Question 22

Measures of psychopathology commonly used by clinical psychologists

Answer 22

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF (to assess psychopathology, emotional functioning, & personality traits)
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A) (Adaptation of MMPI for ages 14-18)
• Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-IV (MCMI) (Focuses on personality disorders and clinical syndromes, but it does overpathologize clients)
• Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (assesses emotional and behavioural issues in ages 13-19)
• Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) (measures broad psychopathology and personality traits, often used in clinical and forensic settings)

Question 23

Measures of normal personality commonly used by clinical psychologists

Answer 23

• California Psychological Inventory (focuses on interpersonal behaviour and social interaction)
• NEO Personality Inventory-3 (Based on the Five-Factor Model of personality and assesses Openness, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism)

Question 24

Self-Report Checklists of Behaviour and Symptoms

Answer 24

• Dozens of checklists with scientific support, available for use
• Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment - Symptoms Checklist-90-Revised
• Outcome Questionnaire-45
• Beck Depression Inventory-II
• Children’s Depression Inventory 2

Question 25

ASEBA

Answer 25

- Youth Self-Report, Child Behaviour Checklist - Adult Self-Report, Adult Behaviour Checklist - Older Adult Self-Report, Older Adult Behaviour Checklist

Question 26

SCL-90-R

Answer 26

Assesses a broad range of psychological symptoms across different clinical domains

Question 27

OQ-45

Answer 27

Tracks psychological distress and therapy outcomes over time

Question 28

BDI-II

Answer 28

A widely used tool to assess the severity of depression symptoms

Question 29

CDI-2

Answer 29

Measures depressive symptoms in children and teens

Question 30

Projective Measures of Personality

Answer 30

Projective measures assess personality through ambiguous stimuli, assuming responses reveal unconscious aspects of personality; not typically used in psychology other than to understand oneself more or in ambiguous situations

Question 31

Types of Projective Measures of Personality

Answer 31

- Association Techniques (indicate what a stimulus looks like) - Construction Techniques (produce a story, drawing, etc.) - Completion Techniques (finish a sentence, story, etc.) - Arrangement/selection techniques (rank order preference for stimuli) - Expression techniques (analysis of handwriting)

Question 32

Concerns with Projective Measures of Personality

Answer 32

- Standardization (or clinicians deviating from standardized procedures for administration and scoring) and availability of appropriate norms - Considerable variability in the extent to which there are reliability and validity data supporting the test/technique - Sometimes there appears to be supporting data, but research studies may use different stimuli or scoring systems than what are typically used by clinicians

Question 33

Key challenges of Projective Measures of Personality

Answer 33

- Standardization issues (variability in administration and scoring) - Often not generalizable for clinical use - Limited reliability and validity (inconsistent supporting data) - Clinical vs Research Use (different interpretations in practice)

Question 34

Examples of Projective Measures of Personality

Answer 34

- Rorschach Inkblot Test - Thematic Apperception Test (talking about a story based on a picture; common themes feature love, fear, secrecy, security, betrayal, etc.)