What do psychological theories of crime do?
Most theories entail one of two assumptions, what are they?
They examine criminality through theories of personality or learning that account for a person’s behaviour in a specific situation - crime as a result of underlying mental processes
- focuses on individual differences
- Assumption of offender deficit : something is psychologically wrong with the offender
- Assumption of discriminating traits : offenders differ from non-offenders, especially in impulsivity and aggression
What are some critiques of the psychological approach to crime?
- there is little emphasis on positive characteristics of offenders - the focus is overwhelmingly on offender deficits, although there is a recent shift towards recognizing offender strengths
- it ignores the importance of situational and environmental factors on individual behaviour - however, recent research stresses situational and environmental factors
- the “criminal vs. non-criminal” binary is not reliable - criminal behaviour is, in fact, pervasive
Describe the criminal vs. non-criminal binary
- where does the motivation to commit delinquent acts come from?
Farrington : it is important to understand differences between offenders and non-offenders
- criminality is the outcome of different social and psychological risk factors
- the motivation to commit delinquent acts arises from a desire for material goods or a need for excitement - if these desires cannot be satisfied in a socially approved manner, an illegal act may be chosen
- delinquent acts may also be influenced by psychological variables (ex. individuals’ learning history or beliefs regarding criminal behaviour)
List the different levels of analysis in the community psychology “level of analysis” perspective
What is the example of these levels in reference to a victimless crime like drug abuse?
- Individual level - social problems are defined as individual deficits
- Small group level - social problems are created by group functioning deficits
- Organizational level - organizations of society have not accomplished what they are supposed to
- Institutional or community level - social problems are created by institutions
- Examine the person’s psychological problems and intervene to change these individuals
- Influence of peers can be viewed as influencing the person
- Law enforcements agencies are seen as failing at deterring people from engaging in that crime
- Problems are caused by the laws this society has created - focus is on changing laws
Describe Haney’s psychological theory of crime
- makes a strong case for a situational approach to understanding criminal behaviour
- argues for less focus on defective properties of the individual
- places more emphasis on situational pathologies or environmental stressors that may alter an offender’s psychological state
What were Freud’s 3 ideas about human nature and personality?
- human nature is inherently antisocial
- good behaviour requires effective socialization
- the lifelong features of personality are fixed in childhood
To Freud, personality is composed of what three forces? (psychoanalytic theory)
Id: biological drives
Ego: directs the impulses of the id and acts as a reality tester
Superego: conscience
What is the Psychoanalytic theory for why crime occurs?
The ego and superego (internal controls) develop through successful resolution of conflicts at each stage of development –> crime results when the ego and superego are unable to control the primitive, aggressive, antisocial instincts of the id
- underdeveloped (weak) superego - doesn’t develop proper controls (parental deprivation in early childhood)
- deviant superego - identification with a deviant role model, results in a person with deviant values. This individual will perform criminal acts that mirror his or her parents’ criminality
- overdeveloped superego - guilt over unconscious desire may lead to desire to be caught *this one is hard to test and prove
- search for compensatory gratification
oral (birth to 1), anal (1-3), phallic/genital focus (3-6), latent (6 - puberty), genital (puberty - death)
*criminality is caused by a person’s failure to progress satisfactorily through the early stages of development
- individual is susceptible to antisocial behaviour
What are the other applications of psychoanalytic theory to criminality that Warren & Hindelang identify?
- criminal behaviour is a form of neurosis
- criminals suffer from compulsive need for punishment to alleviate guilt and anxiety from unconscious strivings
- criminal activity is a substitute gratification for desires not met in the family
- delinquent behaviour is the result of traumatic events whose memory has been repressed
- delinquency may be an expression of displaced hostility
What are the problems and limitations of psychoanalytic theory?
- it is not seen as a thorough explanation for criminal behaviour
- the theory is untestable, because it relies on unobservable underlying constructs - receives little scientific support
- it is tautological - aggressive acts are the result of impulses, but the evidence for impulses is aggressive acts
- not all criminals suffer from guilt or anxiety
- doesn’t explain many of the facts of crime (maturational reform)
- psychotherapy has not been a cure for crime
Explain the influence of the Psychoanalytical theory in crime
has been very influential
–> indeterminate sentencing - crime seen as sickness, not as an evil
–> juvenile court (compared to adult)
–> punishment to fit the criminal not the crime
part of a wider trend - social work discipline
not much success as therapy
What are the three psychological learning theories?
Classical conditioning (Eysenck)
Operant conditioning (Skinner) -
Social learning (Bandura)
What is the evolutionary theory of crime?
What are the critiques of evolutionary theory?
It seeks to understand human behaviour from a Darwinian perspective of natural selection
- refers to Reproductive Fitness variance to account for high rates of criminal offending among young men –> men are less risk-averse than women, especially during late adolescence and early adulthood when competition for mates is most intense — and because women have been focused on raising children, they are less likely to engage in risky antisocial behaviour that might jeopardize their children
Critiques:
- normalizes and excuses criminal behaviour
- too deterministic
- the explanations are hypothetical, given our lack of knowledge of early human behaviour
Describe Theories of Moral Development? (Jean Piaget contribution?)
Says that the key to understanding criminality is the development of a sense of morality and responsibility
It is based on the child development theory of French psychologist Jean Piaget
- studied children playing, and concluded that moral reasoning was learned in stages and some people develop more than others
*children go from egocentrism (lacking empathy) to cooperation (by age 11 or 12)
Describe Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral judgement development - each with two stages (6 stages total) - everyone goes through them in order, but pace may vary and some get stuck
- Preconventional level (punishment & instrumental hedonism / pursuit of pleasure)
- morals and values are do’s and don’ts and are associated with punishment - egocentric (what happens to me?)
- up to age 11 - Conventional level (approval of others & authority maintaining morality)
- should have internalized rules and expectations - social expectations (what do others expect of me)
- adolescence and adult - Postconventional level (democratically accepted law & principles of conscience)
- morality based on principle - universality (what is best for all?)
- few attain this level
Explain the criticisms of moral development theories
Gilligan has criticized the theory, saying it does not apply to females and is male-centred
- care-oriented women seldom reach the post-conventional level
While some studies have shown that higher levels of moral reasoning are associated with lower levels of delinquency, correlations are relatively low
What is Eysenck’s theory of crime and personality?
Explores how personality characteristics are related to criminal behaviour
Classical conditional : deviant behaviour is inherently reinforcing, so children will only refrain if punished
- need to pair deviance with pain or fear - will serve as a deterrent
- delinquents and criminals don’t develop this conditioned response (conscience) either due to lack of effective conditioning or they’re less susceptible to it
Explain Eysenck’s dimensions of personality and which are most likely to be delinquent or criminal
Extraversion vs. Introversion
- extroverts more likely to be criminal - they crave excitement, are impulsive, and have a weak conscience
Neuroticism vs. Stability
- neurotic extroverts are difficult to condition positively
Psychoticism
- have a propensity for violence
What is the problem with Eysenck’s theory
Why is it useful?
Problem : incorporates tautological reasoning
- and oversimplifies the complex nature of human personality
Useful because it shows how psychological and social variables can be interrelated
- individuals with a psychological propensity to commit crime may be socialized effectively in a positive social environment (ex. if they were punished sufficiently as children)
- individuals with a low propensity for criminality may become criminal if their environment is too permissive
Describe social learning theory
Says aggression is learned from which three sources?
Central concept = cognitive functioning: the ability to think and make choices
People learn new behaviours through Modelling = vicarious learning by watching others
*integrates sociology and psychology in explaining criminal behaviour
3 sources of aggression:
1. family (aggressive or abusive parents)
2. subcultural influences (ex. violence learned in tough neighbourhoods from peers)
3. Symbolic modelling (ex. tv violence)
- suggests a correlation between tv violence and aggression (causal relationship unknown) –> ppl show less autonomic reactivity to real-life aggression if they had first watched a violent tv show
According to Bandura and social learning theory, what are the best deterrents for aggression and violence
- more attractive pro-social alternatives
- fear of punishment - can include legal, social, and self sanctions
Describe Operant Conditioning
Based on work by B.F. skinner
- rewards and punishments can greatly influence behaviour - rewards reinforce a behaviour and punishment weakens a behaviour
Operant conditioning may be used to change antisocial behaviour of delinquents and criminals
- token economy = a rewards-based treatment program for delinquent youth
—-> Best known program = Achievement Place (kansas) → youths live with trained houseparents and they use a token economy system where points can be earned or lost for doing good or bad things → points are used to purchase privileges and material goods
**have good short-term positive effects but long-term implications are less positive → emphasis on systematic aftercare to help maintain treatment effects
Describe Antisocial personality disorder (APD)
Key indicator is a disregard for the rights of others, as well as impulsive, irresponsible, and aggressive
- begins in childhood with lying, stealing, fighting, etc.
- adolescence - indicators can include early or aggressive sexual behaviour, drinking, and drug use
- continues to adulthood - more extreme indications diminish after 30
*Based mainly on behavioural evidence, in contrast to psychopathy, which is based on behavioural and affective/interpersonal criteria
**Estimated that 24-75% of the inmate population meet the criteria for APD
**Estimated that 15-25% of the inmate population in North American prisons could be considered psychopathic
What is the Hare Psychopathy checklist?
Robert Hare
- the checklist includes 20 traits and behaviours associated with psychopathy
–> *composed of two factors : items that define personality traits and items descriptive of antisocial behaviour - provides reliable and valid assessments of psychopathy
- widely used for research and for making decisions in the mental health and CJS
- the traits on the checklist are strong predictors of violence and recidivism in offenders and psychiatric patients
