1
Q
memory
A
the ability to retain knowledge
2
Q
Evolutionary psychologists view memory as…
A
“a component of a neural machine designed to use information acquired in the past to coordinate an organism’s behaviour in the present”
3
Q
Forming memories requires…
A
energy
4
Q
two metaphors used to describe memory
A
- Plato and Aristotle compared memory to a wax tablet: when we want to remember something, we imprint the idea onto the wax, and as long as the impression remains, the memory is reatined. Furthermore, different types of wax (i.e. too moist, too hard) can lead to different impressions, in the same way that memories can fade at different speeds.
- Cognitive psychologists compare memory to computers: data is entered, stored in a system, and later retrieved when needed.
5
Q
information processing
A
the flow of information through the nervous system, involving perceptual systems, memory systems, and decision-making and response systems
6
Q
the three steps of memory (and their relation to the computer metaphor)
A
- Encoding is the process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory (i.e. typing information on a computer).
- Storage is the retention of information (i.e. stored computer files).
- Retrieval is the recovery of stored information (i.e. opening stored files).
7
Q
two of the most common causes of retrieval failure
A
interference and stress
8
Q
the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multistore Model of Memory, and its stages
A
dictates that information flows through a series of stages, and if memory is not transferred to the next stage, it is permanently lost
STAGE 1: sensory memory
STAGE 2: short-term memory
STAGE 3: long-term memory
9
Q
sensory memory
A
the first stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds large amounts of incoming data for very brief amounts of time (< 1 sec)
10
Q
the types of codes sensory input is translated into
A
- visual codes (iconic memories): the temporary storage for visual information
- haptic codes: the temporary storage of information about touch and other body senses
- acoustic codes (echoic memories): the temporary storage for auditory information
11
Q
the sensory code that lasts the longest
A
acoustic codes
12
Q
short-term memory (STM)
A
the second stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds small amounts of incoming data for a limited time
13
Q
rehearsal
A
the repetition of information; allows information to stay in short-term memory indefinitely, or to move between short-term, working, and long-term memories
14
Q
limitations of short-term memory
A
- duration of up to 18 seconds
- capacity of 5-9 “bits” (items)
15
Q
chunking
A
the process of grouping similar or meaningful information to expand our capacity in short-term memory
(e.g. PEI RCMP NHL KFC vs PEIRCMPNHLKFC)
16
Q
working memory
A
an extension of short-term memory that includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information simultaneously
17
Q
two major differences between short-term memory and working memory
A
- Short-term memory involves the passive storage of information, whereas working memory involves an active manipulation of information.
- Short-term memory is viewed as managing a single process at a time, whereas working memory allows multiple processes to occur simultaneously.
18
Q
four components of working memory
A
- phonological loop: responsible for verbal and auditory information
- visuospatial sketch pad: holds visual and spatial information
- central executive: manages the work of the other components
- episodic buffer: combines information stored in long-term memory, with the active processing taking place in working memory
19
Q
long-term memory
A
the final stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that is the location of permanent memoires
20
Q
two types of rehearsal
A
- maintenance rehearsal (rote rehearsal): repeating information over and over again in order to keep it in working memory
- elaborative rehearsal: making connections between new information that you are trying to remember and already existing information
21
Q
the levels of processing theory, and the benefits of elaborative rehearsal
A
According to this theory, words encoded according to meaning would be easier to remember than words encorded according to their visual appearance, because encoding meaningfulness produces a deeper level of attention and processing.
22
Q
the serial position effect
A
people are more likely to remember the first items (primacy effect) and the last items (recency effect) on a list
23
Q
the two divisions of long-term memory
A
- Declarative memories are consciously retrieved memories that are easy to verbalize.
- Non-declarative memories are unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memories that are difficult to verbalize.
24
Q
two types of declarative memories
A
Semantic memories
- general knowledge about the world, in the form of facts
- organized in categories
- originate from others or repeated experience
- provides us with an objective understanding of the world
Episodic memories
- personal accounts of past experiences
- organized in a timeline
- originates from a single, personal experience
- provides a reference point for our subjective experience of the self
25
Semantic and episodic memories interact during...
encoding and retrieval
26
autobiographical memories
the blending of semantic and episodic memories that reference the self (self-knowledge)
27
highly superior autobiogaphical memory (HSAM)
individuals with nearly perfect recollection of many life experiences
28
three types of non-declarative memories
* **classical conditioning**
* **procedural memories:** contain information about how to carry out a skilled movement, and are especially difficult to describe in words (e.g. how to use scissors)
* **priming:** the change in our response to a stimulus because of pre-exposure to related stimuli (e.g. if asked to complete the fragment ____ory", you'd likely complete it as *mem*ory due to the reoccurence of the word)
29
collective memories
shared memories of past events among members of a social group (e.g. a family recalling the way a father danced at a party)
30
transactive memories
a coordinated memory system among a close group or dyad; members of a social group are each responsible for remembering specific pieces of information, so that no one is responsible for knowing everything (e.g. a mother remembering the dislikes of a child, so the father doesn't have to)
31
connectionism
views the mind as a network made up of simpler units or concepts
32
spreading activation model
* a connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences (e.g. when asking people what the first thing that comes to mind is when they think of "red", you'll get different answers)
* suggests that concepts differ in the strength of their connections (e.g. most people have a closer link between "orange" and "fruit", than "avocado" and "fruit", despite both being fruits)
33
schema
a set of expectations about objects and situations
34
the usage of schemas in memory storage
When we encounter new information, we try to fit it into an existing schema. Details that are consistent with our schemas are more likely to be retained, whereas inconsistent details are more likely to be left out.
Details may also be wrongfully added in memory if they make a story more consistent (e.g. remembering books in a professor's office, even if there weren't any).
35
retrieval from short-term memory
we search through short-term memory one item at a time, rather than retrieving all contents at once
36
cues
stimuli that help you access target information
37
generate-recognize
the process of retrieving information from memory, and recognizing it as correct or not
38
encoding specificity
a process in which long-term memories incorporate other important bits when encoded
each memory is processed in a unique way (this exact combination of bits is unlikely to occur again), so any stimulus that was present and noticed could serve as a cue for retrieving the target memory
39
context-dependent memory
the improvement in memory that occurs when the external context present at encoding and retrieval are the same
e.g. Walking into a room and forgetting your purpose, but them remembering what you were set to do when returning to your original position.
40
state-dependent memory
the improvement in memory that occurs when the internal state of the individual is the same at encoding and retrieval
e.g. People in a bad mood while witnessing an even may later recall more correct details of the even when in a bad mood during recall.
41
reconstruction
rebuilding a memory out of stored elements; when retrieving information, it flows from long-term memory back into working memory
42
the flexibility of memories (i.e. emphasis)
certain aspects of stories are emphasized for greater effect, and can lead to variables in memory
e.g. When asked, "How fast were the cars going when they *smashed* each other?", people are likely to recall seeing broken glass on the road, than if they were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they *hit* each other?"
43
fuzzy-trace theory
Memories are either retained as **verbatim traces**, in which exact details are remembered, or **gist traces**, in which only the general idea is retained.
The use of gist traces increases with age, as verbatim traces use more energy.
44
The formation of strong memories is usually linked to strong...
emotions
45
flashbulb memory
an especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event
46
the formation of flashbulb memories
* as information moves through the information processing model, it remains subject to modification
* stress and strong negative emotions are accompanied by the release of hormones and brain activity that can enhance or impair memory processing
* if stress and learning happen at the same time, an enhanced (flashbulb) memory can be formed
47
________ occuring either before or after learning impairs memory formation.
Stress
48
____________ is associated with a smaller hippocampus, and may have an influence on the formation of new memories.
Chronic stress
49
forgetting
a decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory
50
absentmindedness
a memory error that results from a lack of attention
51
amnesia
when forgetting is the result of brain injury/disease
52
four things that can reduce our ability to recall information
* stress
* illness
* time pressure
* distractions
53
benefits of forgetting
provides a way to prioritize the things we should remember; the prefrontal areas of the brain actively suppress memories that are used less frequently
54
decay
a reduction in the ability to retrieve rarely used information over time
55
a classic method of measuring the retention of material in long-term memory over time
**the method of savings:** comparing the rate of learning material the first time, to learning the same material a second time
56
interference
competition between newer and older information in memory
57
the two directions of interference
* **proactive interference:** reduced memory for target information as a result of earlier learning
* **retroactive interference:** reduced memory for target information as a result of later learning
58
blocking
forgetting that occurs when we know that we have the correct information stored, but we simply cannot access it; the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
59
motivated forgetting
the failure to retrieve negative memories (e.g. students who struggle with math may fail to remember a math lesson because they are motivated to forget the unpleasant learning experience)
60
confabulation
gaps in memory are filled with imagined or misinterpreted details
61
long-term potentation (LTP) in memory
the enhancement of communication between two neurons resulting from their synchronous activation
62
two shared characteristics between memories and LTP
* lasts a long time, similar to long-term memories
* can be formed after only brief exposure to stimuli
63
the brain and working memory
the phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad use the same posterior parts of the brain that are used in verbal and visual perception
64
the hippocampus and declarative memories
* it allows us to navigate our mental space in the same way it enables us to navigate physical space
* it may be involved with the re-experiencing of episodic memories throughout the lifespan
65
anterograde amnesia
the inability to form new memories
66
the cerebral cortex and declarative memories
* semantic memories are widely distributed across the cerebral cortex (e.g. naming tools activates the frontal and parietal lobes, normally associated with movements and actions)
* patients in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease show much more dramatic episodic memory deficits than semantic memory deficits
* damage to the prefrontal cortex can affect episodic memories (source amnesia)
67
source amnesia
the inability to recall when, where, or how you learned something, while still retaining the semantic knowledge
68
the basal ganglia and procedural memories
* procedural memories are correlated with activation of the basal ganglia (part of the brain's motor systems)
* people with Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease produce degeneration in the basal ganglia, and have trouble learning new procedures, whereas their declarative memories remain intact
69
acetylcholine (ACh) and memory
* drugs that inhibit ACh systems interfere with memory formation
* people with Alzheimer's disease show degeneration of neural ACh circuits; medications prescribed to reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease boost ACh activity
* when ACh is too high, it can impair memory consolidation and retrieval
* low levels of ACh (e.g. sleep) improve the transfer of information from temporary to more permanent storage
70
glutamate and memory
chemicals that enhance the activity of NMDA receptors (a type of glutamate receptor) have been shown to boost memory formation in rats; similar compounds are being tested for possible Alzheimer's disease tretment
71
GABA and memory
individual differences in working memory capacity are correlated with GABA system activity; impairments in working memory are characteristic of schizophrenia and dementia
72
distributed practice vs. massed practice
nearly all forms of learning show evidence of an advantage of distributed practice (practice spread out over time) over massed practice (practice condensed to a short period; cramming), due to an increased time for memory consolidation
73
test taking and memory improvement
taking tests produces superior long-term memory, as opposed to repeated studying of material, due to an improved ability to think about learned material with greater flexibility and to apply material to new situations
74
physical exercise and memory improvement
exercise increases neurogenesis in the hippocampus, which can lead to an increase in memory performance
75
sleep and memory improvement
sleep plays an active role in the consolidation of memories; sleep-related processing reorganizes existing memories to accommodate new information
76
recitation and memory improvement
verbalizing material to be learned in your own words takes advantage of a general superiority for self-referential information
77
mnemonics
memory aids that link new information to well-known information, including:
* acronyms: condensing a large amount of information into a smaller word/phraase
* *loci*: memorizing lists in order by imagining yourself walking through a familiar place, and visualizing each item in a particular location
78
the most fragile type of memory
working memory (most likely to be affected by interference)
PSY A01
flashcards
Decks in class (8)
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