Learning & Behavior > Chapters 5-9 > Flashcards

Chapters 5-9 Flashcards

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1
Q

What did Thorndike test for?

A

Do animals possess intelligence?

The study of consequence

  • did Cat & Puzzle Box experiments
    • ​the cat leanred from the consequences of its actions
    • THE LAW OF EFFECT:
      • ​any action has a consequence (positive or negative)
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2
Q

The Law of Effect

4 Key Elements:

A

Any action has a consequece (can be positive or negative)

4 Key elements (cause and effect chain of events):

  • have environment
  • have behavior
  • change in environment after the behavior
  • change in ithe behavior after the change in environment
    • DEMONSTRATES LEARNING HAS OCCURRED

_ex:_ puzzle box, push lever, door opens –> cat more likely to push lever

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3
Q

What did Skinner say about behavior?

A
  • behavior is either strengthened** or _weakened _** by its consequences
  • behavior operates in the environment–> behavior effects the environment

Said that there are 4 TYPES OF EXPERIENCES:

  • 2 THAT STRENGTHEN BEHAVIOR
    • reinforcement
  • 2 THAT WEAKEN BEHAVIOR
    • punishment
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4
Q

types of operant learning

A

2 that strengthen behavior: REINFORCEMENT

2 that weaken behavior: PUNISHMENT

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5
Q

what is reinforcement?

A

an increase in the srength of a behavior due to its consequences

​to qualify as reinforcement:

  • behavior must have a consequence
  • behavior must increase in strength
  • the increase must be a result of the consequence
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6
Q

positive reinforcement

A

a behavior causes appearnece or increase in intensity of a stimulus

stimulus: positive reinforcer (something animal seeks out)

“reward learning”

“add” something to increase behavior

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7
Q

negative reinforcement

A

behavior strengthened by the removal/ decrease in intensity of the stimulus

stimulus: _negative reinforcer _(usually something we want ot avoid)

“escape learning”

“escape avoidance learning”

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8
Q

how do we measure the strength of a behavior?

A

frequency

or

probability

of the behavior occurring

  • or any other feature of the behavior (as long as its reinforced)*
    (ex: duration, form, intensitym latency)
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9
Q

what is behavioral momentum?

A

behavior persists even AFTER punishment and other reinforcers

its hard to erase the learning

(“learning keeps building up”)

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10
Q

kinds of reinforcers

A
  • primary: innately effective; don’t have to learn to like them (food, water, social)

vs.

  • _secondary: _a result of learning; conditioned reinforcer (applause, money)
    • have no vsalue on their own, we give them value
  • generalized reinforcers: paired w/ different reinforcers to be used in differnt situations
    • natural: events that psontaneously follow from a behavior
    • contrived: events provided by someone in order to modify behavior; do not occur naturally; manipulation
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11
Q

what is satiation?

(“say-she-ay-shun”)

A

when a reinforcer loses its ability to be effective due to changes in the environment, or the value of the reinforcer

ex: secondary reinforcers satiate more slowly because they tend to be weaker and aren’t as disruptive; provide instant gratification (money)

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12
Q

operant conditioning

A

behavior causes an effect (event contingent on behavior)

the behavior is voluntary/flexible (can be manipulated)

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13
Q

classical conditioning

A

events connected to behavior

(event 1 is contingent on event 2)

behavior is reflexive

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14
Q

what is contingency?

A

X and Y occur together or not at all

the amount of correlation between behavior and its consequence

(how reliably the reinforcer follows behavior)

*in terms of reinforcement: *increase the likelihood of behavior happening again

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15
Q

what is contiguity?

A

the time gap between behavior and its consequence

shorter gap = faster learning

after a delay between the behavior and the consequence, you may inadvertently reinforce other behaviors

*ex: *press lever, then cat chases tail, then door opens–> cat thinks chasing tail will open door

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16
Q

characteristics of reinforcers

A

size: larger is better

qualitative differences (individual differences can determine effectiveness)

ex: ice cream not a good reinforcer for someone who is lactose intolerant

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17
Q

behavior characteristics

A

some behaviors are easier to learn than others

what we’re trying to teach influences how quickly & easily it’s learned

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18
Q

what are motivation operations?

A

anything that changes the effectiveness of a consequence

2 types

  • establishing operations: **increase effectiveness
  • abolishing operations: decrease effectiveness
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19
Q

neuromechanics of reinforcement

A

Olds & Milner–1950s

ESB (electrical stimulation of the brain)

shock rats brain

looked at reward pathway (pathway the deals w/ reinforcement; limbic system)

found that the reward pathway is dopamine rich w/ endorphins

stimulating dopamine receptors triggers a reward

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20
Q

THEORIES OF REINFORCEMENT:

positive

Drive reduction theory

A

drive: motivational states

reinforcers: events that reduce drives

  • pros: works with primary reinforcers*
  • cons: not as well for secodary reinforcers or ones that are hard to classify*
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21
Q

THEORIES OF REINFORCEMENT:

positive

Relative value theory

A

reinforcers aren’t things–>they’re BEHAVIORS

ex: the reinforcer isn’t the food, it’s EATING the food

behaviors have different relative values (“rahter be doing X or Y?”)

something with a higher relative value will reinforce better that somwthing with a low relative value

**comparing differnet behaviors and how much you’d rahter be doing them**

pros: no need for internal “drives”

cons: doesn’t consider secondary reinforcers; sometimes low probability behavior will still be reinforcing under normal conditions

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22
Q

THEORIES OF REINFORCEMENT:

positive

Response Deprivation Theory

A

compare behaviors to themselves, **not to each other

_baseline: _ amount of time spent engaging in behavior under normal condtions

when does a behaviors become a reinforcer?

  • when the behavior is held below baseline value of how much you want to do something
  • cons: *still issues w/ praise
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23
Q

THEORIES OF REINFORCEMENT:

negative

Two-Process Theory

A

**2 processes occurring **

BOTH operant and Pavlovian conditoning occur

escape from an aversive stimulus to learn

when CS loses its aversiveness, avoidance persists; extinction fails to occur

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24
Q

THEORIES OF REINFORCEMENT

negative

One-process Theory

A

keep operant conditioning (because it can explain everything)

the reduction in the shock is reinforcing

stop avoidance behavior by forcing it to stop

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25
Shaping
a type of learning **reinforce simple behaviors close to what you want/the desired behavior** used to shape behavior that won't occur spontaneously behaviors vary: useful behaviors get selected & rewarded (like natural selection; select for traits) \*rat & basketball video example\*
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how to shape
* don't require too much at one time * provide immediate reinforcement/rewards (latency=bad--\> *can reinf. wrong behavior*) * give small rewards * reinforce the closet approximation of the end behavior * back up when necessary
27
what is **_chaining?_** ## Footnote *forward and backward?*
teaching individual to perform a behavior chain ***in order*** **behavior chain: ***a series of connected actions* **forward chaining: **reinforce FIRST actions, then SECOND, etc **backward chaining: **reinforce LAST action *first*, then second to last, etc \*\* the LAST ACTION in the chain is the _most important_\*\*
28
steps in chaining:
same process sas shaping **_BUT_ reward individual after successfully completing EACH step** analyze chain--what are its parts? break it into pieces
29
schedules of reinforcement
variation in reinforcement contengencies that follow a specifc rule (specific pattern) **fixed vs. variable** **_ratio vs. interval_** **_ratios_**: # of behaviors to the # of reinforcements; ratio increase=more # of behaviors you have to perform to get reinforcement **_interval: _** how much time has gone by between when you got the 1st reward and the 2nd reward; still have to perform behavior to get reward; (time elapsed between a reinforcement and the next behavior)
30
fixed ratio schedule (FR)
**behavior reinforced** when it has **occurred a fixed # of times** produces ***post-reinforcement pauses***: pauses b/t behavior after reinforcement given
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variable ratio schedule (VR)
reinforcement given based on an **average ratio** of behaviors to reward ***produce steady performance***: pauses are rare/short \*_never know *when* the reward is coming\*_ _main difference from fixed ration schedule:_ the pauses *(no pauses in variable ratio schedule because you don't know when reward is coming, so you keep doing behavior to get reward)*
32
fixed interval schedule (FI)
behavior reinforce ONLY if it occurs after a particular, constant interval after a certain time interval, the next behavior is reiforced; any behavior in the meantime doesn't count/doesn't get rewarded
33
variable interval schedule (VI)
behavior is reinforced after a interval, BUT the interval varies around a particular time after a time interval, the next behavior in reinforced produces steady run rates (but not as steady as variable ratio schedules)
34
extinction
have a behavior that has been reinforced, but STOP reinforcing it **_for good_** "FR infinity" (fixed ratio for forever) ex: *pigeon flaps wings=reward*--\> **pigeon flaps wings=\>no more rewards**
35
extinction bursts
at first, behavior will suddenly increase (pigeon flaps wings more!) because they can't figure out why they are no longer recieving rewards
36
resurgence
previously reinforced behaviors reappears from childhood * variabliy increases after extinction* ex: adult throws temper tantrum
37
spontaneous recovery
extinct bahevior reoccurs after time outside of the operant chamber
38
less common schedule types
duration (fixed or variable) noncontingent schedules progressive schedule (stretching ratio) ratio strain breaking poit (behavior stops completely) _compound schedules_ (more than one shcedule combined)
39
partial reinforcement effect
behavior reinforced on a schedule is MORE RESISTANT to extinction than continuously reinforced behavior
40
thinner reinforcement effect
bigger ratio/longer interval # = thinner ratio something less reinforcing overall
41
discrimination hypothesis
thinner schedule is MORE DIFFICULT to distinguish between the schedule and the extinction process
42
frustration hypothesis
not getting a reward is frustrating (because reinforcers reinforce behavior AND ***feeling ***too) **thinner schedule = greater frustration**
43
sequential hypothesis
not getting reinforced every time is another cue to keep going because eventually the behavior will be reinforced ## Footnote *same as frustration hypothesis, BUT the cue to continue the behavior for reinforcemnt is from the environment (not frustration)*
44
response-unit hypothesis
combination of behavior is ONE response unit rewards happen after every unit BUT unit are defined differently (grouped) (\*box thingy\*) *eliminate _partial reinforcement effect_*
45
matching law
how one performs a behavior is directly related to how they get rewarded for it thicker reinforcement schedule = rewarded more often relative frequency of reinforcement directly related to the relative frequency of the reinforcement available learn both ratio schedules and choose the richer one to be rewarded more often only switch between the 2 to see if you're about to get rewarded
46
what is **_punishment_**
the decrease in a behavir because of it consequences (opposite of reinforcement) Thorndike concluded that we don;t learn from our failures
47
positive punishment
behavior weakened with the appearnace or increase in intensity of an aversive stimulus ADD something to the environment ex: yelling, arrest, ticket, water squirt
48
negative punishment
behavior weakened with the REMOVAL or REDUCED intensity of a pleasurable stimulus take something away from the environment ex: time-out
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VARIABLES AFFECTING PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **contingency**
how dependent punishment is on behavior more contingency = faster bahvior changes higher contingency = faster extinction/fewer changes overall
50
VARIABLES AFFECTING PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **contiguity**
interval between behavior and punishing consequence longer interval = less effective punishment
51
VARIABLES AFFECTING PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **punisher intensity**
more intense punisher = more reduction in behavior
52
VARIABLES AFFECTING PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **introductory level** **(level of intensity)**
2 options for levels of intensity: * start with WEAK, aversive stimulus and gradually increase it until the behavior stops * can allow people to learn to toleratestimuli better (not good) * start with STRONG, aversive stimulus and build up if you need to * larger punishment may be necessary to learn assn and stop behavior much fatser * hard to determine the level that's "just right"
53
VARIABLES AFFECTING PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **previous reinforcement**
how strongly a behavior was reifnorces before it was punished the more well-learned/reinforced a behavior is, the harder it is to punish it
54
VARIABLES AFFECTING PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **alternative sources of reinforcement**
if the behavior is the ONLY way to get reinforcement then punishment won't work very well if there's another way to get reinforcement (food, water, attention), then punishment is very effective (a way to get around previous reinforcement)
55
VARIABLES AFFECTING PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **motivating operations**
punishment is MORE effective if the REWARD is not as good (ex: wheat vs. candy) quality of previous reward vs. punishment
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VARIABLES AFFECTING PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **qualitive features (of the punishment itself)**
some punisher are just BETTER than OTHERS depends on the individual anf what they like
57
THEORIES OF PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **TWO process theory**
both operant and classical conditioning influence performance
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THEORIES OF PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **ONE process theory**
only involves operant low probability behavior should punish high probability behavior "the way to go interms of punishment"
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PROs of punishment
reinforcing FAST can permanently change behavior
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CONs of punishment
has to be consistent; must punish every instance of behavior can create extinction bursts can be avoided; try to escape--\> can lead to negative reinforcement physical punishment creates aggression toward the punisher (when escape is impossible) displace aggression toward innocent others imitation of the punisher suppressed behavior if escape is impossible
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ALTERNATIVES to PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **response prevention**
change the environment so that behavior cannot occur in the first place
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ALTERNATIVES to PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **extinction**
must remove all reinforcers
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ALTERNATIVES to PUNISHMENT: ## Footnote **differential reinforcement**
***3 types of differential reinforcement*** * _**DRA** (differential reinforcement to alternative behavior)_ * specifically reinforce something else * _**DRI (**differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior)_ * reinforce specific incompatible behavior (cant do 2 behaviors at 1 time) * _**DRL** (differential reinforcement at a low rate)_ * reinforce a lower rate of behavior * reinforce someone for doing it less than they would normally do it
64
INFLUENCES OF OPERANT TREATMENTS: **home environment**
**_development of secure attachment_** *neglect in orphanages or in general damages attachment formation* (environment if orphanages is non-responsive, so operant procedures not in effect; lose contengency) crying--\>not being picked up = learn that "no one is there" in an **_ideal environment_** --\> **needs will be met** * associative learning: cry = help* * ex: learning to speak via encouragement*
65
INFLUENCES OF OPERANT TREATMENTS: ## Footnote **school environment**
**_reinforcement_** works to encourage ***good behavior/performance in school *** *move away frompunishment--\>reinforce good behavir and ignore bad behavior* ***_DRL_** (children should learn how to earn attention)* reinforcement is the **_basis for internet-based learning_**
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INFLUENCES OF OPERANT TREATMENTS: ## Footnote **clinic environment**
**_self injurious behavior:_** * before reinforcement, children were restrained * use **_punishment as a treatment to decrease behavior_** * **_​alternatives_** to punishment: DRI; reiforcement can promote positive behavior **_Delusions (_**_false beliefs_**_):_** can get worse with positive reinforcement; reinforce doubts in those false beliefs & provide alternative options **_Transient paralysis:_** short term paralysis of limb * ***neuroplasticity:*** brain recovers by rewiring itself so that other parts of barin can work affected limb * contrain-induced movement therapy (remove learning of pain; shaping makes it work faster)
67
INFLUENCES OF OPERANT TREATMENTS: ## Footnote **work environment**
improve worker performance improve productivity with performance feedback rewarding safety practices = fewer work accidents
68
INFLUENCES OF OPERANT TREATMENTS: ## Footnote **zoo environment**
improve the vetinary care of animals with operant conditioning helps with humane treatmets of animals allow animals to "earn" food through operant reinforfcementlike they would in their natural habitat; reduces boredom and reinstates wilderness conditions shape and reinforce behavior to care for animals
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