CLA

Question 1

Halliday 7 core functions that children use language for in the
order they acquire it:

Answer 1

Instrumental, Regulatory, Interactional, Personal, Heuristic, Imaginative, Representational

Question 2

Instrumental

Answer 2

1. the child needs something - for example, “want drink’ and
   ‘need toilet’. language that is used to fulfil a need, such as to obtain food, drink or comfort. This typically includes concrete nouns.

Question 3

Regulatory

Answer 3

2. the child wants something to happen - for example, ‘pass me
   juice’, ‘come here’. language that is used to influence the behaviour of others including persuading, commanding or requesting.

Question 4

Interactional

Answer 4

3. Interactional - the child interacts with others - for example,
   “doggy
   play?’, ‘love you mummy’. language that is used to develop relationships and ease interaction. This could include phrases like “I love you mummy” or “Thank you”.

Question 5

Personal

Answer 5

4. the child wants to express themselves - for example,
   “doggy good boy’, ‘me no like cheese’. language that expresses personal opinions, attitudes and feelings including a speaker’s identity.

Question 6

Heuristic

Answer 6

5. the child wants to learn about the world - for example,
   “what
   dog doing?’, ‘where dad going?’. language that is used to explore, learn and discover. This could include questions or a running commentary of a child’s actions.

Question 7

Imaginative

Answer 7

6. the child wants to be creative with language, including
   telling stories - for example,
   ‘me a doggy too! Woof woof!’, ‘one day
   when I was…’

Question 8

Representational

Answer 8

7. • the child wants to relay facts or request information - for example,
     ‘I am 2’ ‘dog is on sofa’

Question 9

O’Grady

Answer 9

Children struggle to distinguish
between /r/ and /w/ up to the age of
7.

Question 10

Berko and Brown 1960

Answer 10

demonstrates that perception of phonemes occurs earlier than the ability of the child to produce those phonemes. Children notice when caregivers make
mistakes but are unable to see that
they are making a mistake. A child
was saying ‘fis’ and when asked if
they meant ‘fis’, they said no, but
when asked if they meant ‘fish’, they
said yes. This also supports the nativist approach as it displays that a child’s brain articulates more than the child’s mechanics to pronounce the /h/ at the end of ‘fis’. They used the example of a caregiver asking the child ‘‘oh is this your fish’’ and the child responding saying ‘‘yes this is my fis’’ however the child never corrected themselves to say ‘fish’. This suggests that a child may know more in their brains than we think.

Question 11

Rescorla

Answer 11

3 different types of

overextension: categorical, analogical and relational

Question 12

Categorical overextension

Answer 12

the child applies a
label to everything in a
category. For example, ‘dog’ for
all animals

Question 13

Analogical overextension

Answer 13

the child applies a
label to everything which is
physically or visually similar. For
example, ‘tomato’ for a ball.

Question 14

Relational overextention

Answer 14

the child applies a
label which is in some form
related to the object. For
example, ‘pen’ for paper.

Question 15

Belugi

Answer 15

The child fronts negatives, for
example, ‘no me go outside’ when
first learning to negate.

Question 16

Lenneburg

Answer 16

Critical Theory Hypothesis 1967- There is a critical period for learning
language - after this point, it very
difficult to learn.

Question 17

Behavourism

Answer 17

Children learn through positive and negative reinforcement. When a child says something right, their caregivers will praise them and when they say something wrong, they will tell them it’s wrong and correct them. Main theorist- Skinner

Question 18

Interactionalism

Answer 18

Children are born with nothing (tabula rasa) and learn language from the social environment they are in - this includes caregivers providing support. Bruner

Question 19

What did Bruner develop

Answer 19

the Language Acquisition Support System (LASS) - which
is designed for caregivers to scaffold and support a child’s language to help
them get it correct. When using language to talk to a child, we call this Child Directed Speech (CDS). argues that children do have an innate ability to learn and acquire language, but also require the interaction of other users of the same language to excel in their learning.

Question 20

Child Directed Speech- Labelling

Answer 20

providing the label, for example, ‘that’s a ball’.

Question 21

CDS- over-articulation

Answer 21

elongating vowel sounds, for example, ‘baby’s foooooooood’.

Question 22

CDS- Echoing

Answer 22

repeating what the child says.

Question 23

CDS- Expansion

Answer 23

repeating what the child said, but in a more linguistically
sophisticated way, for example, ‘doggy chew’ > ‘yes, that’s right, the
dog is chewing’. Word order is preserved. Result in syntactically more correct versions. Add meaning and provide evaluative feedback
-Perceived as cue to imitate
ex: C- Daddy eat.
A- Daddy is eating a cookie.

Question 24

CDS-Expatiation

Answer 24

repeating what the child said but adding more information,
for example,
‘bottle cold’ >
‘yes, the bottle is cold, so I’ll warm it up for you’.

Question 25

CDS- reformulation

Answer 25

repeating what the child says, but in a different way, for example, 'doggy tail wag' > 'is the dog wagging his tail?'. Adults reformulate ungrammatical utterances into what child means to say- errors identified and corrected. Word order changed but meaning preserved

Question 26

Who supports Bruner- Snow

Answer 26

``` Snow- Coined the term 'motherese' to describe the way mothers talk to their children. This includes: . Higher pitch Greater range of intonation Frequent use of the interrogative and declarative mood Repetition of syllables and phrases. Also fact that accents exist ```

Question 27

Support of Bruner- Bard and Sachs

Answer 27

Bard and Sachs - Case study of Jim - a boy with two deaf parents. They exposed him to TV and radio to hear language, but he didn't learn how to speak. However, interactions with speech therapists allowed him to acquire language, thus proving the importance of interaction.

Question 28

Challenges Bruner- Myszor

Answer 28

Myszor- CDS helps social development, but not linguistic development.

Question 29

What also challenges Bruner

Answer 29

Children produce utterances which abide to no grammatical structure. No caregiver would have said their utterance, so there must be something external to caregivers.

Question 30

Nativism

Answer 30

There is some form of in-built language learning device.

Question 31

Nativism Chomsky

Answer 31

he argues that children do not learn through imitation and that even if they did, caregivers do not provide a good enough source of English - he calls this a poverty of stimulus. He argues that children have a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in their brains which helps them to acquire language and contains a set of rules about how to use grammar and that as children become more exposed to language, different parts of their LAD activate. He calls this Universal Grammar(some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest without being taught.) He furthers his theory by saying that children say things with mistakes that an adult would never have said, which means they cannot be imitating. For example, "I threwed the ball'. He calls these virtuous errors - errors where you can see why they have this wrong.

Question 32

In support of Nativism- Pinker

Answer 32

Pinker- When a child produces an utterance, almost every single utterance is new - they cannot be imitating.

Question 33

In support of nativism- Pye

Answer 33

Pye- Cultures around the world raise children differently including some which don't use CDS - yet they all learn to speak. This suggests there is something innate at play.

Question 34

Support of Nativism- Berko-Gleason

Answer 34

Berko-Gleason The Wug Test- There is one WUG. There are two… The majority (75%) of child aged 4-5 were able to choose the right ending. This means therefore, that children do not learn through imitation

Question 35

Support of nativism- Genie

Answer 35

Genie was a child who was abused until the age of 13 - shut away and deprived of human contact. Linguists worked with her, but since she had passed the critical period, she couldn't learn language. This suggests that there must be some form of internal structure as caregivers were unable to help Genie to acquire language.

Question 36

Nativism limits

Answer 36

there is no scientific proof that this exists. Chomsky based his theory on his observations only.

Question 37

How can I spot nativism in data?

Answer 37

Children resisting being corrected OR children which accept correction and then revert back again. Mistakes with inflections. Children making virtuous errors.

Question 38

Cognitivism- | What do they argue?

Answer 38

Children need to be cognitively adept to talk about things; they cannot express what they do not understand.

Question 39

Cognitivism- Piaget

Answer 39

he argues that until children learn the rule of object permanence (things still exist when you can't see them), they struggle to name things; hence why children's language starts to be acquired properly at around a year.

Question 40

In supprt of Cognitivism- Vygotsky

Answer 40

``` Children have a cognitive deficiency they need to understand things and have a gap of knowledge. He calls this the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). He argues that the role of the caregiver (or, as he describes, a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) is to fill the cognitive gap. ```

Question 41

Limits of cognitivsm

Answer 41

However, children who have learning difficulties still manage to acquire lang

Question 42

Social constructivism- | What do they argue?

Answer 42

Children learn the rules of language and learn to construct it.

Question 43

Tomasello- social constructivism

Answer 43

children listen to language and find patterns and develop plans on how language is used (schemas).

Question 44

Support of social constructivism- Braine

Answer 44

children learn to use slots and frames. As Tomasello says, these schemas are developed from listening to adults. These could look like this: When I want to talk about myself having completed an action: 1 + (SLOT)ed'

Question 45

``` Katherine Nelson (1973) studied 18 children's first words and found that they could be categorised according to their function. ```

Answer 45

Approximately 60 per cent of the words that children acquired first were nouns. The other three categories were (verbs), modifiers (adjectives and adverbs) and personal and social words (words like bye-bye, please and sorry).

Question 46

Under-extension examples

Answer 46

when a child uses a more general word but will only apply it to a very specific situation or thing. For example, apple might be used but only applied to green apples, not red ones. Another example might be the word 'car' only being used to describe the car owned by Mummy.

Question 47

What does over and under-extension show

Answer 47

Over- and underextension are factors that might be considered when trying to explain language acquisition. It could be argued that the ability to seek connections and find similarities between words is a sign of some kind of innate capacity to make sense of language.

Question 48

What links to over and under-extension

Answer 48

Hypernym (fruit) | Hyponyms (bananas, grapes, pears, apples, blackberries, blueberries, strawberries.)

Question 49

Aitchinson

Answer 49

Once children expand their vocabulary they use network building to sort the words. An aspect of this stage is understanding hyponymy which occurs at around 18 months. Labelling, packaging, network-building

Question 50

Aitchinson, labelling

Answer 50

Linking words to the objects to which they refer Understanding that objects can be labelled

Question 51

Aitchinson Packaging

Answer 51

Exploring what labels can apply to. Over/under extension occurs in order to understand the range of a word’s meaning

Question 52

Aitchinson network-building

Answer 52

Making connections between words – understanding similarities and opposites in meanings. Synonyms, atonyms

Question 53

Communicative competence Dell Hymes, 1966!

Answer 53

Effective language acquisition means using the right language in the right context, and learning to interpret subliminal messages! Linguistic competence: knowing linguistic methods! Sociolinguistic competence: understanding which register is appropriate for which context! Discourse competence: (ability to control all aspects of language for different modes and genres). Strategic competence: being able to recognise and repair communication breakdowns ! • A child must be “able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech ! events, and to evaluate their accomplishment by others.” (Hymes 1972, 277)!

Question 54

The Wug Test Berko-Gleason?

Answer 54

suggests children naturally knwo how to apply grammatical rules so supports nativism. Jean Berko's wug study (1958) This supports the nativist approach and discredits positive reinforcement. She created made up words that children had never heard before, but they understood the plurals of them without having heard them first. It displays that children naturally understand this concept of plurals.

Question 55

Semantically contingent utterance

Answer 55

Retains focus or topic of previous utterance

Question 56

Pragmatically contingent utterance

Answer 56

Concurs with intent of previous utterance

Question 57

“it is not certain if children in cases of extreme deprivation have trouble learning language because they have missed their so-called “critical period” or if it is because of the extreme trauma they have experienced.”

Answer 57

Sampson (1997) that argues against critical period

Question 58

Braine

Answer 58

1963. Pivot schema, two word patterns Noted that at the two word stage, children seem to use patterns that revolve around certain key words Pivot scheme - 'allgone' acts as a pivot, and can be combined with a range of other words to create 2-word expression 'allgone dinner' 'allgone milk'

Question 59

Ibbotson 2012

Answer 59

Constructions Against innateness, against poverty fo the stimulus as thousands of words a day are spoken to a child Learn mini-sentences 'I want x' 'where's x' and then use pattern swapping equipment to substitute other words in. They look for similarities

Question 60

Tomasello 2003

Answer 60

Argues against language as a special 'instinct' Language acquisition is primarily social, co-operative and collaborative - pattern forming ability, look for children using language caregiver has used Language relies on the same cognitive processes as other forms of learning e.g walking, drawing

Question 61

In support of Chomsky- Bickerton 1983

Answer 61

Conducted study of Hawaiien pidgin speakers - the pidgin grammar was fairly basic. When the next generation of the speakers were born, the grammar became more rich, corresponding to underlying grammatical principles of all global languages Therefore this supports Chomsky's universal grammar

Question 62

Aitchison 1983 (Puzzle-solving)

Answer 62

Puzzle-solving equipment' Challenges Chomsky's universal grammar Refers to the mechanism humans have as a general purpose cognitive learning mechanism that spots patterns and makes contrasts

Question 63

Tomasello

Answer 63

PATTERNS, COGNITIVE PROCESS, TEMPLATES Tomasello also rejected Chomsky's theory of a L.A.D, rather he introduced a usage-based model. He argued against language being a special ability, and said the ability to learn language is primarily social and relies on the same sort of cognitive processes as other types of learning e.g. walking. By 1 year, a child can make use of a pattern forming ability, that allows them to learn about the different forms and uses of different word, and understand the intentional aspect of language. Child uses a 'bottom up' approach. They build and use templates for grammatical structures based on sensory input and interaction with caregiver.