Who were the Junkers?
Prussian landowning aristocrats who dominated the army, civil service, and conservative politics.
What was the role of the upper middle class?
Industrialists, bankers, and large business owners who gained wealth and influence during industrialisation.
Who made up the middle class?
Professionals (teachers, doctors, lawyers), civil servants, and small business owners.
What characterised the lower middle class (Mittelstand)?
Shopkeepers, clerks, artisans — anxious about status loss due to industrialisation.
Who were the working class?
Industrial labourers, miners, factory workers, and unskilled labourers; the largest and fastest‑growing class.
What was the rural working class?
Agricultural labourers and small farmers, often poorer and more conservative than urban workers.
How did urbanisation change Germany between 1871 and 1914?
Massive migration from countryside to cities; Berlin, Hamburg, and the Ruhr expanded rapidly.
What were living conditions like for urban workers?
Overcrowded tenements, poor sanitation, disease, and limited access to clean water.
How did urbanisation contribute to SPD growth?
Concentrated workers in cities, increasing political awareness and collective identity.
What improvements occurred by 1914?
Better housing regulation, rising wages, shorter working hours, and access to welfare schemes.
How did urbanisation affect class consciousness?
Workers developed stronger solidarity, union membership grew, and socialist ideas spread.
What was the legal status of women in Imperial Germany?
Limited rights; excluded from politics, restricted in employment, and legally subordinate to husbands.
How did industrialisation affect women’s work?
Many worked in textiles, domestic service, and later in clerical roles; wages remained low.
How did education for women change?
Access to secondary education improved; universities opened to women in the early 1900s.
Why were women important to the SPD?
They formed a growing part of the working class and supported campaigns for welfare and equality.
How did industrialisation affect young people?
Many entered factory work early; long hours and harsh conditions were common.
What role did education reforms play?
Compulsory schooling increased literacy and created a more skilled workforce.
How did working‑class youth differ from middle‑class youth?
Working‑class youth entered employment earlier and had fewer educational opportunities.
What were wages like for workers?
Wages rose gradually, but inequality remained high and living costs often outpaced income.
How did State Socialism affect workers?
Provided sickness, accident, and old‑age insurance — the first welfare system of its kind.
What were working conditions like?
Long hours, dangerous machinery, and limited safety regulations, though improvements came after 1900.
Why did workers join trade unions?
To demand better wages, shorter hours, and safer conditions; unions became powerful by 1914.
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Government and Opposition Under Wilhelm I34
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Kulturkampf & SPD42
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National Minorities22
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Chancellors 1871-191450
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The Reichstag37
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Development of parties and oppositon: SPD/Left Wing19
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Kaiser Wilhelm II & his Chancellors17
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Gov under Bismarck20
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Development of the SPD18
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Industrial Expansion18
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Class hierarchy/Working class22
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Elitism and militarism20
