Pavlov’s salivation studies:
- Used food to induce salivation.
- Dogs salivated to neutral stimuli associated with food.
- “Conditional” Reflex; response conditional on environment.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Stimulus that elicits a reflexive
response in the absence of
learning.
Unconditioned response (UR)
Reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning.
A psychological response designed by natural selection (salivating in the presence of food is caused by natural selection). Automatic
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Initially neutral stimulus comes to elicit conditioned response
Conditioned response (CR)
Reflexive response elicited by the conditional stimulus. it is a psychological response that resulted from natural selection. (Bell is associated with food and salivating appears, which is a psychological response to the conditioned stimulus).
Classical conditioning requirements
Neutral stimulus (bell) must precede the unconditioned stimulus (food).
Works best of the interval is <1sec
How does extinction work
- conditioned reflex is extinguished if the conditioned stimulus is subsequently repeated and presented with nothing.
- not forgetting, but learning new thing
- Spontaneous recovery: conditioned reflex reappears on subsequent sessions but weaker (bell rung with no food present therefore dog has less response)
- Multiple sessions required for complete extinction
higher-order conditioning
- neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by repeatedly pairing it with another conditioned stimulus.
- Ex: Food = salivation (unconditioned reflex)
Dog bowl + food = salivation
Dog bowl = salivation (conditioned reflex)
Can opener + dog bowl + food = salivation
Can opener = salivation (2nd conditioned reflex)
Generalization and discrimination
- Stimulus generalization: conditioened reflex can be generalized to similar neutral stimuli (green dog bowl and blue dog bowl can be generalized to same conditioned stimulus)
- Stimulus discrimination: conditioned reflex might not be generalized to similar neutral stimuli that fail to predict unconditioned stimuli
How does classical conditioning work in humans
Neutral stimulus (brand or product) associated with positive emotion.
- advertising: using celebrities or sexually arousing people
Conditioned phobias and its experiment
- irrational fear: neutral stimulus associated with negative emotion
- John B. Watson: “little Albert” experiment
- Counter-conditioning: phobias may be reduced by pairing with less fearful stimulus with objects associated with positive emotions.
Albert likes cookies (US) —> Albert’s scared of rabbits (CR) —>
Rabbit + cookie = Albert’s happy CR —>
Rabbit = Albert’s new happy CR
Conditioned taste aversion and experiment
Food stimulus associated with nausea and illness is subsequently avoided.
- John Garcia studied taste aversion in rats
- Single association is sufficient
- Conditioned response lasts a long time
Pathogen = nausea and vomiting (UR)
Spoiled seafood + pathogen = nausea and vomiting
Seafood = nausea and vomiting (CR)
What is homeostasis and how does our body maintain it
Homeostasis: Organisms strive to maintain balance through psychological and behavioural responses.
Nervous system:
- decreases activity following the introduction of a stimulant
- increases activity following the introduction of a depressant
How are psychotropic substances subjected to classical conditioning
- Person/place/context = neutral response
- depressant that decreases nervous system activity = increases central nervous system activity (UR)
- Person/place/context drug is associated with + depressant = increase CNS activity
- Person/place/context = increases CNS activity (CR)
Results in withdrawal symptoms, need drugs to decrease/ increases the conditioned response
Behavioural vs psychological response
- behavioural: External actions taken based on internal psychological response (nail-biting, facial expressions, laughter)
- psychological: internal thoughts and emotions based on internal or external stimulus (Ex. stress/trauma based on environment)
Define classical conditioning and instrumental operational conditioning
Classical conditioning: conditioned reflex results from association of neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus (automatic responses)
Instrumental operational conditioning: particular responses increases or decrease depending on their consequences (voluntary)
What is the “black box” theory?
- it is a theory where the mind is focused on stimulus-response associations, where its environment determines their thoughts (no instincts) people are blank slates.
Environment mind behaviour
Stimulus ——> black box —> response
Who was Edward L. Thorndike
(1874-1949)
- first to study operant conditioning by placing cts in a puzzle box
- ineffective responses became less frequent; effective responses baceam more frequent.
- Law of Effect: behaviours that lead to “satisfying” results are “stamped in”, whereas those that lead to “unsatisfying” results are “stamped out”
Who is B. F. Skinner
- (1904-1990)
- radical behaviourism: refined the terms for “satisfying” and “unsatisfying” as explanations for behaviour.
Refined theory of operational conditioning.
Developed terminology used today: reinforcement, punishment, extinction. - said “free will is illusion”
What is reinforcement?
- a stimulus that increases the response that it follows
- primary reinforces: inherently reinforces the response and typically satisfy a physiological need (food); deprived state
- secondary reinforces: acquired reinforcing qualities through association with other reinforcers (money) used to get primary reinforces
What is punishment?
- Stimulus that decreases the response that follows
- primary punishers are stimuli that are inherently punishing (pain)
- secondary punishers have acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers (fine)
What is neutral consequence
No effect on response
Positive vs negative reinforcement
Positive: desirable consequence (good grades)
Negative: remove bad stimulus (parents stop nagging you)
positive vs negative punishment
Positive: Bad consequence (prison and fine)
Negative: remove desirable stimulus (revoke driving privileges)
