1
Q
What is classification
A
- the process by which living organisms are sorted into groups
2
Q
What are the taxonomic groups
A
- kingdom
- phylum
- class
- order
- family
- genus
- species
3
Q
Why are organisms classified
A
- identify species
- predict characteristics
- find evolutionary links and common ancestors
4
Q
Why is a single classification system used worldwide
A
- allows scientists to share finding and link animals across continents
5
Q
What is a species
A
- a group or organisms that are able to reproduce to produce fertile offspring
6
Q
Why might an organisms by infertile (so not a species)
A
- odd number of chromosomes
- means meiosis/ gamete production can’t occur
7
Q
Classification of humans
A
- d= eukarya
- k= animalia
- p= chorolata
- c= mammalia
- o= primates
- f= horminidae
- g= homo
- s= sapien
8
Q
What is the name for how species are named
A
- binomial nomenclature
9
Q
How are species named
A
- genus species
- ( in italics)
10
Q
What are the 5 kingdoms
A
- prokaryotae
- protoctista
- fungi
- plantae
- animalia
11
Q
Features of prokaryotae
A
- unicellular
- no nucleus or other membrane bound organelles
- small ribosomes
- no visible feeding mechanism (nutrients absorbed)
12
Q
Features of protoctista
A
- mainly unicellular
- nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
- some have chloroplasts
- some immobile, some move by cilia/flagella
- nutrients acquired through photosynthesis
- e.g. amoeba
13
Q
Features of fungi
A
-uni or multicellular
- nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
- chitin cell wall
- no chloroplasts
- no mechanisms for locomotion (movement)
- food stored as glycogen
- nutrients acquired through absorption (often of decaying matter) - saprophytic
- some are parasitic
- e.g. mould, yeast
14
Q
Features of plantae
A
- multicellular
- nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
- chloroplasts and chlorophyll
- cellulose cell wall
- store food as starch
- nutrients acquired through photosynthesis (autotrophic)
- most don’t move
- e.g. grass, trees
15
Q
Features of animalia
A
- multicellular
- nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
- no chloroplasts
- move with aid of flagella, cilia, contractile proteins
- heterotrophic- acquire nutrients through ingestion
- food stored as glycogen
- e.g. mammals, repitles
16
Q
How is DNA used to discover evolutionary links, example
A
- when organisms evolve, DNA changes (determines proteins and characteristics)
- comparing the DNA similarity between species discovers evolutionary relationships
- e.g. haemoglobin = differs in amino acid numbers between different species, similar structure indicates common ancestry
17
Q
What is a domain, what are they
A
- further level of classification at the top of the hierarchy
- classifies organisms into 3 domains, and 6 kingdoms
- eukarya, archaea, bacteria
- organisms in each domain contain unique form or rRNA and different ribosomes
18
Q
Features of Eukarya
A
- 80s ribosomes
- RNA polymerase contains 12 proteins
19
Q
Features of archaea
A
- 70s ribosomes
- RNA polymerase contains 8-10 proteins
20
Q
Features of the bacteria domain
A
- 70s ribosomes
- RNA polymerase contains 5 proteins
21
Q
What are the 6 kingdoms domains cause
A
- protoctista, plantae, animalia, fungi remain the same, under the EUKARYA domain
- arachaea and bacteria split prokaryotae into eubacteria and archaeabacteria
22
Q
Features of archaea bacteria, example
A
- single celled prokaryotes
- known as ancient bacteria
- can live in extreme environments (e.g., acidic or thermal)
- e.g. methanogens
23
Q
Features of eubacteria
A
- single celled prokaryotes
- known as true bacteria
- more common than archaea bacteria
- found in all environments
- peptidoglycan cell wall
24
Q
What is phylogeny
A
- the evolutionary relationships between organisms
25
What is phylogenetics
- the study of evolutionary history of groups or organisms
- reveals which groups of organisms are related, how closely related they are
26
What is a phylogenetic tree
- a diagram used to represent the evolutionary relationship between 2 organisms
27
Features of phylogenetic trees
- branched diagram
- shows how different species evolve from a common ancestor
- earlies species at base of tree, most recent at tips of branches
- produced by looking at differences and similarities in species genetic makeup and physical characteristics
- the closer the branches, the closer the evolutionary relationship
28
Advantages of phylogenetic classification
- can be done without reference to Linnaen classification
- classification uses phylogeny to confirm or change classification groups
- produces a continuous tree rather than discrete taxonomic groups- doesn't force organisms into groups
- advantages over linnaen (suggests different groups with same rank are equal, when may not be comparable)
29
What is the definition of evolution
- the theory that describes the ways that organisms evolve or change over time due to natural selection
30
Process of developing the theory of evolution 1= 1831
- Darwin reads principles of geology, which suggests fossils were evidence of animals millions of years ago
- also promoted uniformitarianism- idea Earth is shaped by forces
- caused Darwin to think evolution was a slow process
31
Developing theory of evolution 2- galapogus
- Darwin did observation in Galapogos islands, studied Finches
- noticed different islands had different finches- different shape claws and beaks
- design of finches beaks linked to foods available (longer beaks suited to more food, survive and reproduce)
- over time whole island population share characteristic
32
Developing evolution 3- sending, Wallace
- sent specimens of organisms back to UK to preserve and classify organisms
- spot links between organisms Darwin hadn't
- when he returned, studies pigeons to gain direct evidence his ideas were correct
- at same time, Wallace working on his own theory of evolution, sent his ideas to Darwin in 1858 for peer review
- similar ideas, did joint presentation to Linnaen society in July 1858
33
Developing evolution 4= book
- 1859=Darwin published on the origin of species
- named theory he and Wallace presented- evolution by natural selection
- controversial at time as contradicted religious beliefs about God creating all organisms
- split community before being accepted
34
What is paleontology
- the study of fossils and the fossil record
35
How do fossils form, how are they used
- form when animal and plant remains are preserved in rocks
- sediment deposited on earth to form layers of rock- strata
- different layers respond to different geographical eras
- within rock strata, fossils are different, forms sequence of oldest to youngest, showing organisms have gradually changed over time
36
Evidence provided by the fossil record
- fossils of simplest organisms found in oldest rocks, complex in more recent
- sequences organisms are found in matches ecological link to each other
- fossils allow relationships between extinct and extant organisms to be studies
- scientists can show how closely related organisms have evolved from the same ancestor (fossil similarity)
37
What is comparative anatomy
- the study of similarities and differences between organisms anatomy
38
What are homologous structures
- a structure that appears superficially different in different organisms but has the same under lying structure
- structures may perform different functions
39
What is divergent evolution
- how different species evolve from the same common ancestor, each with a different set of adaptive functions
40
When does divergent evolution occur
- when closely related species diversify to adapt to new habitats as a result of migration or loss of habitat
41
What is comparative biochemistry
- study of similarities and differences between the chemical makeups of organisms, which control biological or physiological processes
- proteins, DNA, amino acid sequence
- allows estimation of when 2 organisms shared a common ancestor
42
What is variation
- differences in characteristics between organisms
43
Interspecific vs intraspecific variation
- INTER= between members of DIFFERENT species
- INTRA= between organisms WITHIN a species
44
What is genetic variation, factors that cause it
- variation due to the genes and alleles an individual possesses
- alleles, mutations, meiosis (crossing over and independent assortment), sexual reproduction, chance
45
What is environmental variation, what does it affect more, examples
- variation due to environmental experiences
- plants are greater affected as they are immobile
- e.g. scars
46
What is continuous data, how can it be displayed, examples
- a characteristic that can take any value within a range
- graduation in values from 1 extreme to another
- controlled by a number of genes- polygenetic
- displayed by histogram line graph
- height
47
What is discontinuous variation
- characteristic that can only result in certain values
- discrete/categorical data
- purely determined by single/few genes
- displayed by bar chart/pie chart
- e.g. blood group
48
Features of a normal distribution
- mean=median=mode
- bell shaped curve
- symmetrical
- number of individuals at each extreme are low
49
What is standard deviation, link to variation, % of values within s.d.
- a measure of how spread data is
- characteristic with a high s.d has a large amount of variation
- 68% of values within one s.d from the mean, 95% within 2, 99.7% within 3
50
What is the students t-test
- compares the means on data values of 2 sets of data/populations
51
When is data significant for the students t-test
- if the calculated values is less than or equal to p value (0.05)
52
What is spearman's rank correlation co-efficient, meanings of correlations
- considers the relationship between 2 sets of data
- positive correlation= as 1 set of data increases in value, o does the other
- negative correlation= as 1 set of data decreases in value the other increase
53
When is spearman's rank correlation coefficient significant
- when the calculated value is less than or equal to the critical (0.05)
54
What does p=0.01 mean
- there is a 1% probability of the difference being due to chance only
- would happen 1/100 times due to chance
55
What is an adapatation
- a characteristic that increase an organisms chance of survival and reproduction in its environment
56
What are anatomical adaptations, examples
- anatomical= internal and external physical features
- body covering
- camouflage
- teeth
- mimicry (copying other)
57
What are behavioural adaptations, examples
- learnt or inherited ways of how an organism acts
- survival behaviours (freeze)
- courtship (attract mate)
- seasonal behaviours- migration, hibernation
58
What are physiological adaptations, examples
- processes that occur within an organism
- poison production
- antibiotic production
- water holding
- reflexes, blinking, temp regulation
59
What is convergent evolution, why does it happen
- when unrelated species start to share similar traits
- evolve due to similar environments or selection pressure
60
What are analogous structures, example
- structures that have adapted to perform the same function but have a different genetic origin
- e.g. whale tail fins and fish tail fins
61
Examples of convergent evolution- moles
- marsupial and placental moles both burrow through soft soil to find worms
- both have streamlined body, modified forelimbs, velvety fur
- differences= marsupial are white/orange, placental are grey
- 2 subclasses separated millions of years ago, now found in separate continents, but are similar
62
What are selection pressures, examples
- factors that affect an organisms chances of survival/reproductive success
- e.g. disease, predation, competition
63
What is natural selection
- organisms best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, these adaptations become more common in the population
64
Process of natural selection
1. organisms within a species show variations in characteristics due to genetic variation
2. organisms who's characteristics are better adapted to selection pressures have an increased chance of survival and reproduction
3. successful organisms reproduce and pass on advantageous allele
4. process repeats over generations, advantageous alleles become more frequent in the gene pool
5. over long periods involving multiple genes, process can lead to evolution of a new species
65
Examples of evolution- Antibiotic resistant bacteria
- MRSA developed resistance to many antibiotics
- bacteria reproduce rapidly so evolve rapidly
- DNA can be altered when reproduce leading to a mutations which can provide resistance
- resistant bacteria survive and pass on resistance, increasing the population
66
Examples of evolution- peppered moths
- before industrial revolution, pale moths advantageous, more camouflage on trees
- after industrial revolution, trees darker so dark moths advantaged
- lighter now so paler adapted- constant change in gene pool frequency
67
Examples of evolution- sheep blowflies
- lay eggs near sheep tail, which hatch and cause sores
- developed resistance to pesticides, adapted reproduce and pass on allele
- some have a pre-adaptation to pesticides- helps rapid development of resistance
68
Examples of evolution- Flavobacterium
- evolved due to opportunities in environment
- live in waste water from factories containing nylon 6
- bacteria evolved to digest nylon, provides nutrient and cleans water up
biology module 4
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