CLOA - Memory models

Question 1

Introduction to memory

Answer 1

• Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information

Types of memory:

• Declarative (explicit)
  1) Episodic: Events/experiences
  2) Semantic: Facts/concepts
• Procedural (implicit): Skills

Question 2

MSMM - Components of memory

Answer 2

• Sensory memory
• Short-term memory
• Long-term memory

Question 3

MSMM - Sensory memory

Answer 3

• Store that detects information and holds it until it is either transferred further into STM or lost
• Capacity: Limited by our perception
• Duration: 2-5 seconds

Question 4

MSMM - Short-term memory

Answer 4

• Store that holds, but doesn’t manipulate, a small amount of information in an active state for a short period of time
• Capacity: 7+/- 2 chunks (Milner’s Magic Number)
• Duration: 30 seconds

Question 5

MSMM - Long-term memory

Answer 5

• Store that stores large amounts of information for indefinite periods of time
• Capacity: Unlimited
• Duration: Life-long

Question 6

MSMM - Conditions of transfer

Answer 6

• Attention (Sensory - STM): We choose which small subset of information from sensory memory to attend to
• Rehearsal (STM - LTM): Increases duration of STM to be transferred and consolidated

Question 7

MSMM - Strengths

Answer 7

• It is of historical significance as it has influenced our understanding of memory
  1) Sparked interest in memory among psychologists
  2) Following research is based on this model
• Presents a good account of basic mechanisms in memory processes (encoding, storage, retrieval)
• There is significant research to support the theory of separate memory stores (both experimental research and biological case studies of brain damage)

Question 8

MSMM - Limitations

Answer 8

• Focus on structure rather than process. Doesn’t emphasise flow of information, instead explains the stores it goes through
• Over-simplified as it assumes that each store works as an independent unit
• Does not explain memory distortion or the role of emotions
• Argues that the only mechanism that enables information transfer is rehearsal
  1) Due to lack of attention to memory as a process
  2) Doesn’t explain why certain things may be learned with minimal amount of research
  3) Craik and Lockhart’s Levels of Processing (LOPs) counter that information undergoes a series of LOPs is (the deeper the information is processed, the stronger the trace in LTM)
• Suggests unidirectional flow of information, but it is a bidirectional process (STM requires information from LTM to work, which is not explained)
• LTM is not a unitary store (proved by case studies of amnesiacs - like HM - that different memory types (semantic, procedural…) are stored separately
• STM is not a unitary store, but rather a “workstation” that manipulates information coming from sensory memory together with knowledge already stored in LTM (WMM and Schema Theory)

Question 9

WMM - Components of memory

Answer 9

• Central executive
• Phonological loop
• Visuo-spatial sketchpad
• Episodic buffer

Question 10

WMM - Central executive

Answer 10

• Attention control system responsible for monitoring the operations of the sub-systems, deciding which information is attended to and giving priority to particular components and activities
• Controls attention in 2 levels:
  1) Automatic level: Routine procedures
  2) Supervisory attentional level: Planning and decision-making

Question 11

WMM - Phonological loop

Answer 11

• Memory store responsible for processing and storing sound-based information

ARTICULATORY CONTROL SYSTEM (INNER VOICE)

• Rehearses sound information (speech production)
• Turns visual stimuli to sound
• Allows rehearsal of information stored in phonological store, increasing chance of transfer to LTM

PHONOLOGICAL STORE (INNER EAR)

• Stores sound information (speech perception)
• Allows acoustically coded information (from senses, LTM, or inner voice) to be stored for a brief period

Question 12

WMM - Visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 12

• Memory store responsible for processing and storing visual and spatial information, setting up and manipulating mental images
• Information comes from:
  1) Sensory memory: Keep track of our position in relation to objects
  2) LTM: Displays and manipulates information from LTM

Question 13

WMM - Episodic buffer

Answer 13

• Passive display store responsible for integrating information from other components (including LTM) and processing it so it can be used in STM when needed
• Recent addition to the model (2000)

Question 14

WMM - Strengths

Answer 14

• More sophisticated than MSMM
• Allows us to explain a wider range of phenomena:
  1) Dual-task technique (why we can sometimes multi-task)
  2) Effects of articulatory suppression
• Supported by considerable scientific evidence:
  1) Case studies of patients with brain damage
  2) Brain scanning showing there is a physiological correlation to separate components of the model (areas light up when stimulated)
• Does not overemphasise the role of rehearsal and approaches memory as a process (unlike MSMM)

Question 15

WMM - Limitations

Answer 15

• Hard to test empirically and therefore falsify, as all its studies are designed to test only 1 aspect of the model (difficulty when designing well-controlled studies that test it entirely)
• Exact role of some components remains unclear:
  1) Central executive
  2) Episodic buffer (how it integrates information from sub-components with LTM)
• Only involves STM and doesn’t consider other memory structures like sensory memory
• Does not explain memory distortion or the role of emotions
• Argued that visuospatial sketchpad should be further subdivided into visual and spatial information separately

Question 16

Schema Theory - Schemas

Answer 16

• Schemas: Mental representations that organise our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations and are derived from prior experience and knowledge
• Theory is based on the assumption that humans are active information processors as we don’t passively respond to information, instead we integrate it to understand experiences
  1) Can lead to memory distortion: Brain fills in blanks based on schemas when lacking information unconsciously

Learning is the combination of:

• Accommodation: Replacing or modifying schemas in order to accept something from the environment
• Assimilation: Adding or modifying information to fit into pre-existing schemas

Question 17

Schema Theory - Types of schemas

Answer 17

• Social schemas: Mental representations about various groups of people (e.g. stereotypes)
• Scripts: Mental representations about sequences of events (e.g. dentist)
• Self-schemas: Mental representations about ourselves (e.g. depression)

Question 18

Schema Theory - Bottom-up and top-down processing

Answer 18

BOTTOM UP:

• Perception is not biased by prior knowledge or expectations (schemas)
• Cognitive process is data-driven and based on reality

TOP DOWN:

• Perception is based by prior knowledge and expectations (schemas)
• Cognitive process is filtered by schemas and expectations

APPLIED:

• Bottom-up information from senses is interpreted by top-down influence of relevant schemas to determine which behaviour is most appropriate

Question 19

Schema Theory - Evaluation (T)

Answer 19

TESTABLE

• We can determine whether schemas help or interfere with memory and learning by priming it

Question 20

Schema Theory - Evaluation (E)

Answer 20

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE

There is a significant amount of research supporting the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes like memory

• Experimental: Bartlett…
• Biological: Caramazza (brain automatically sorts information as soon as it is received)

Question 21

Schema Theory - Evaluation (A)

Answer 21

APPLICATIONS

• Robust theory that has many applications across many fields of psychology, helps us understand how memory works, memory distortion, and how we categorise and interpret information

Question 22

Schema Theory - Evaluation (C)

Answer 22

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

• According to Cohen (1993), schemas cannot be observed and are too vague and hypothetical
  — fMRIs simply show brain activity and don’t clarify what exactly is processed

Question 23

Schema Theory - Evaluation (U)

Answer 23

UNBIASED

• Schemas are applied across cultures. showing no apparent bias except for how most of the early research was done in the West

Question 24

Schema Theory - Evaluation (P)

Answer 24

PREDICTIVE VALIDITY

• Schemas help us predict behaviour, including what types of information will be recalled best and our trends when doing so (e.g. levelling), but we cannot predict exactly what will be recalled or why schema-incongruent information is sometimes recalled