Cognition

Question 1

This perspective views the mind as being like a computer that receives, data, processes it, stores some of it, and makes decisions based on how it’s processed.

Answer 1

Information processing model

Question 2

The information processing model is in stark contrast to behaviorism which states that only _______ could be studied scientifically and avoided any speculation about internal states.

Answer 2

Behavior

Question 3

First stage proposed by Piaget

Answer 3

Sensorimotor stage (birth until 2 yrs old)

• the child really starts to acquire language
• infants primarily interact with the world through processing sensory input and by engaging in motor activities
• acquisition of object permanence
• circular reactions
• stranger anxiety

Question 4

Understanding that objects exist outside of one’s perception

Answer 4

Object permanence

Question 5

Refers to the intentional repetition of something that either happened accidentally, like dropping a toy, or had an interesting effect, like flipping a light switch

Answer 5

Circular reactions

Question 6

Stranger anxiety transition

Answer 6

Transition that occurs at around 8 or 9 months, from a previous pattern in which infants are generally open to strangers to an new one in which strangers provoke intense worry

Question 7

Second stage of cognitive development by pIaget

Answer 7

Preoperational stage (age 2-7)

• children represent objects symbolically, using words and images (symbolic thought)
• take part in vivid imaginative play
• can only engage in minimal logic thinking
• egocentrism, lack of conservation, and centration

Question 8

Difficulty imagining the world from the perspective of others, have not yet developed an understanding of conservation

Answer 8

Egocentrism

Question 9

Tendency to focus on a single property or parameter of an object to the exclusion of others

Answer 9

Centration

Question 10

Third stage of cognitive development by Piaget

Answer 10

Concrete Operational Stage (about 7 to 11)

• more abstract reasoning but only as applied to concrete objects
• develop understanding of conservation
• lose egocentrism and become more skilled at problem solving that involves taking others’ perspectives into account.
• develop logical reasoning skills
• perform better at inductive tasks

Question 11

Generalizing logical conclusions based on empirically observed phenomena

Answer 11

Inductive tasks

Question 12

Involve applying logical principles to make predictions in a top-down way

Answer 12

Deductive tasks

Question 13

Stage 4 of cognitive development by Piaget

Answer 13

Formal operation stage (11 to 16 and then persists into adulthood)

• the ability to fully engage in abstract logic kicks in
• adolescents become able to handle hypotheticals, reasons abstractly, and make nuanced moral judgements

Question 14

Refers to a cognitive framework that organizes information about things that one perceives in the outside world, with implications for the actions that can be taken in response

Answer 14

Schema

Question 15

When you preserve your schema by concluding that animal must not be a cow

Answer 15

Assimilation

Question 16

When you expand your schema by acknowledging that cows can have additional colors

Answer 16

Accommodation

Question 17

Refers to problem-solving skills that can be applied to new situations, without any reliance on previously existing knowledge

Answer 17

Fluid intelligence

Question 18

Reflects the ability to deploy one’s knowledge and skills to solve problems

Answer 18

Crystallized intelligence

Question 19

When cognitive decline and memory impediments interfere with a person’s ability to function in the world

Answer 19

Dementia

Question 20

Disease which involves the formation of beta-amyloid plaques un the brain

Answer 20

Alzheimer’s disease

Question 21

This can be useful when we understand the problem, we’re trying to solve enough to come up with a workable space of possible solutions, but not enough to predict the exact solutions

Answer 21

Trial and error problem-solving technique

Question 22

A problem-solving technique that involves applying a fixed set of steps. Unlike trial and error, a lot of thought and insight can go into designing it but similar to trial and error, it doesn’t require a conceptual understanding of the problem

Answer 22

Algorithm

Question 23

Top-down; it involves applying general principles to a specific situation.

Answer 23

Deductive reasoning

Question 24

Bottom-up; where successive observations are extrapolated to identify general principles

Answer 24

Inductive reasoning

Question 25

Disadvantages of inductive and deductive reasoning

Answer 25

Inductive: vulnerable to overgeneralizations Deductive: profoundly dependent on the validity of the general principles

Question 26

Recognizing that anew problem is similar to a problem that we’ve seen before, and then solving a new problem in the same way that we solved the old one

Answer 26

Analogies

Question 27

Happens when we have a gut sense of how to solve a problem. Corresponds to analogies that we aren’t consciously aware of

Answer 27

Intuition

Question 28

A framework that we use for conceptualizing a problem and trying to solve it.

Answer 28

Mental set

Question 29

Refers to getting stuck in our old ways of thinking about things

Answer 29

Fixation

Question 30

Describes a tendency to see objects as only having a certain function-usually the functions they are designed for- and having difficulties applying objects in novel or untraditional ways

Answer 30

Functional fixedness- classic illustration is Duncker’s candle problem

Question 31

Refers to people’s tendency to maintain their beliefs-or sometimes even strengthen them- in teh face f contradictory evidence

Answer 31

Belief perseverance

Question 32

Systematic, generally subconscious patterns of thought that skew our reasoning

Answer 32

Cognitive biases

Question 33

Occurs when we reason in a way that favors information that supports conclusions that have already madam or beliefs that we already have

Answer 33

Confirmation bias

Question 34

Refers to our tendency to retrospectively view events as having been highly predictable even if it wasn’t so simple in the moment. When reviewing a case with a negative final outcome, every error may seem like a logical foreshadowing of teh end point

Answer 34

Hindsight bias

Question 35

Refers to our tendency to infer cause-and-effect relationships incorrectly, either because one event follows another (technically known as “post hoc ergo proper hoc” fallacy). Tendency to mistake correlation for causation.

Answer 35

Causation bias

Question 36

Commonly defined as mental shortcuts: that is, more or less fixed cognitive processes that we use to solve problems rapidly and/ or in situations where we have incomplete information.

Answer 36

Heuristics

Question 37

Difference between biases and heuristics

Answer 37

Heuristics are problem-solving methods themselves that may be somewhat fussy or flawed but they’re ways of solving problems that often work at least ell enough for practical purposes. Biases are more general cognitive patterns that affect our decision-making processes.

Question 38

Used when we make decisions based on what we consider to be prototypical example of a category. Occurs in contexts where we need to make judgments about how probable something is.

Answer 38

Representativeness heuristic

Question 39

Involves reasoning about the probability or likelihood of a certain event and it involves being influenced by examples of a certain phenomena that come to mind quickly

Answer 39

Availability heuristic - ex. Medical students’ disease

Question 40

Refers to how medical students who are learning about a wide range of unusual , diverse, and often gruesome illness begin to interpret every slight symptom or physical oddity they experience as signs of rare and serious illness

Answer 40

Medical students’ disease or second-year syndrome

Question 41

Representativeness vs availability heuristic

Answer 41

Representativeness- must refer to some assessment of what’s typical, or a certain stereotype Availability- must refer to something in recent memory or that immediately comes to mind

Question 42

The ability to detect patterns, process and store information, understand ideas, and problem-solve

Answer 42

Intelligence

Question 43

The underlying capacity that drives performance across multiple, seemingly-unrelated subjects

Answer 43

``` General intelligence (g factor)- by Charles Spearman *heritability of roughly 50% ```

Question 44

Refers to one’s ability to reason on the fly, or to solve novel problems

Answer 44

Fluid intelligence

Question 45

Describes one’s ability to bring knowledge and skills to bear on problem-solving. Does not just reflect memorization but it has to do with how one can apply what one knows

Answer 45

Crystallized intelligence

Question 46

A paradigm that espoused selective breeding programs for humans, endorsed extremely racist ideas about differences between populations, and provided a framework for horrifically unethical practices like the forced sterilization of poor people

Answer 46

Eugenics- by Francis Galton *despite this, know about Galton’s hereditary genius

Question 47

Alfred Binet is known for?

Answer 47

IQ!

Question 48

Defined as a child’s mental age of divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100

Answer 48

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Question 49

Describes how IQ scores steadily increased in many developed countries throughout the 20th century, before possibly peaking the 1990s.

Answer 49

Flynn effect- powerful example fo environmentalstimulation Possible explanations: general improvements in nutrition, general education overall health, and environmental stimulation

Question 50

Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

Answer 50

Proposed seven intelligences: musical, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

Question 51

3 of Gardner’s categories correspond to sub components of the g factor

Answer 51

Visual-spatial, Verbal-linguistic, and Logical-mathematical

Question 52

Interpersonal vs intrapersonal

Answer 52

Inter- social intelligence: how we relate to others | Intra- how we relate to ourselves and our emotions

Question 53

Gardner suggested adding an 8th form of intelligence

Answer 53

Naturalistic intelligence- the ability to relate to and pick up important patterns in the natural world

Question 54

The term emotional intelligence was popularized by

Answer 54

Daniel Goleman

Question 55

Involves recognition of both one’s own emotions and those of others, as well as emotional-self regulation

Answer 55

Emotional intelligence