cold environments

Question 1

What are cold environments?

Answer 1

Cold environments experiment temperatures hat are at or below zero degrees celcius for long periods of time. In most extreme cold envrionments, such as the Antartic, temperatures will be below zero throughout the year
- less extreme cold environments, such as northern Canada and parts of Iceland, simply experience very cold winters.

Question 2

characteristics of cold environments- Polar

Answer 2

Climate
- winter temperatures often fall below -50 celcius
- these areas have low precipitaion (snow) totals
Soils
- permanently covered by ice so soils are permanently frozen
Plants
- some plants such as mosses and lichens are found on the fringes of the ice
Animals
- polar bears are well adapted to the polar environment. To retain heat they have thick fur, an insulating layer of fat, with a black nose and footpads to absorb sunshine
- in the Antarctic, penguins lay their eggs on land aand bring up their young before returning to the ocean

Question 3

characteristics of cold environments- Tundra

Answer 3

Climate
- this climate is less extrme. winter temperatures may drop to -20 celcius
- the brief summers can be quite warm
- amounts of precipitation- mainly snow- can be high in coastal regions
Soils
- soils are frozen (permafrost) but in summer will melt closer to the surface
- soils are generally infertile. Water draining through soils remove nutrients
- soils become waterlogged because water is trapped by permafrost.
Plants
- low-growing flowering plants such as bearberry, Artic moss and tufted saxifrage
- low bushes and small trees may grow in warmer regions
Animals
- with ore food options and a less extreme climate, several animals live here, including the Arctic fox and Arctic Hare.
- birds such as ptarmigans and insects such as midges and mosquitoes are abundant in the summer.

Question 4

How does vegetation adapt to cold environments- including bearberry as an example

Answer 4

• flowering and seed formation happens in a short time so that reproduction can take place during the short summers
• plants are low-growing and cushion-like to protect and insulate them from the strong dry winds
• hairy stems help to keep plants warm
• thin and waxy leaves reduce water loss

Bearberry-

• very low-growing (5-15cm off the ground) to enable it to survive the strong winds
• stems have a thick bark for stability in the windy conditions
• small leathery leaves help retain waer in this dry envrionment
• hairy stems help to retain heat and keep the plant safe from very low temps
• bright red berries are eaten by birds and owls and this helps to distribute the seeds.

Question 5

svalbard- case study

where is it? and facts

Answer 5

• Norwegian territory in the Arctic Ocean
• most northerly permanently inhabited group of islands in the world
• 60% of land covered by glaciers
• rest of the land is tundra much of which is frozen
• no arable farming and there are no trees- too cold
• 5 major islands, largest is Spitzbergen
• population of about 2700, most living in the main town of Longyearbyen
• more polar bears and snowmobiles than people

Question 6

what are the oppurtunities for development in Svalbard?

Answer 6

Mineral Extraction

• has a rich reserve of coal, but mining is a controversial issue in Svalbard
• environmental groups against it as its a major source of greenhouse gases
• coal mining vital to the economy as its the main economic acitivty and provides jobs for around 300 people in the mines and as support staff
• industry has seen decline due to lower coal prices and jobs being lost
• 2014, new mine opened near Svea- road had to be constructed over a glacier

Energy developments

• some of the coal mined is burned to generate electricity in the Longyearbyen power station
• Norway’s only coal-fired power station and supplies all of Svalbard’s energy needs.
• Environmentalists believe the power station should be closed down and renewable energy sources should be explored
• most likely future source is geothermal energy, tapping into the heat of the eath and using it to generate electricity.
• like Iceland, located close to the mid-atlanctic ridge, a construcitve plate margin- earth’s crust is thin there and hot rocks are close to the surface
• another option being capturing carbon dioxide from burning coal and circulating this instead of water to generate electricity- carbon capture and storage.

Fishing

• cold waters of the Barents Sea (South of Svalbard) are one of the richest fishing grounds in the world
• estimated 150 species of fish here, including herring and haddock
• waters are extremely important breeding and nursing grounds for fish stocks and need to be protected from pollution
• fishing in the BS is jointly controlled and monitored by Norway and Russia to ensure that fishing is sustainable and the ecosytem is protected.

Tourism

• 2011, 70,000 people visited Longyearbyen and 30,000 of these were cruise passengers
• the harbour of Longyearbyen has been enlarged to cope with the increase in the number of cruise ships
• Tourism provides around 300 jobs for local people
• Most tourits come from Norwat and most visit as part of organised groyos
• tourists visit to explore Svalbard’s natural envrionment- the glaciers, fjords and the wildlife, especially polar bears
• Adventure tourism is becoming more popular with activities such as hiking, kayaking and snow mobile safaris.
• in the winter, tourists visit to experience the amazing Northern Lights.

Question 7

challenges of development in Svalbard

Answer 7

Extreme temperatures

• Even in Longyearbyen winter temperatures can fall below -30 celcius, in the northern glacier regions it can be even colder
• extreme temperatures make it dangerous to work outside, with a serious risk of frostbite
• people have to dress very warmly - example fleeces, trousers, scarf, thermals and socks - and this can make outdoor work slow and difficult

Accessibility

• Svalbard is located in a remote part of Europe and can only be reached by plane or ship, the islands themselves are inaccesible
• there is one airport close to Longyearbyen capable of handling international flights from Norway and Russia. Smaller aircraft can be used to connect other islands.
• there is 50km of road in Longyearbyen. No roads serve the other outlying communities
• most people use snowmobiles, particularly in the winter

Services

• include water, electiricity and sanitation
• very important to both the residant population and also to tourists who expect comfortable living conditions with warm rooms and hot showers
• unlike the UK, most services are provided to individual buildings by overground heated water and sweafe pipes
• need to be kept off the ground to prevent them cauing any possible thawing of the permafrost and to allow easy maintenance

Construction

• forms of construction that have taken place in Svalbard:
• • building houses, shops and offices
• • constructing and maintaining areas
• • constructing and enlarging harbour facilities for fishing vessels and cruise ships
• • constructing buildings and mining operations to extract coal
• working outdoors in extreme temperatures and also in limited light during the winter is very demanding. As a result most construction work is carried out during the brief summer period.

Question 8

why are cold environments fragile?

Answer 8

• they are extremely fragile and can be easily damage by huma activities
• tundra vegetation takes a very long time to becom established, very delicate ecosytem that can be easily disturbed

Relatively minor developments- such as constructing a footpath- can have serios long-term affects

Tundra is a fragile environment and can take a very long time to recover from any damage that is done by human acitivity

Off road vehicle damage in Alaska

• popular tourist acitivity in the Alaskan wilderness
• most of it takes place in the summer when the snow has melted
• warmer temperatures melt the upper surface of the soil making it extremely soggy- which can leave deep tyre tracks if cars are to go over it
• as other vehicles skirt the muddy pools, the damage extends over a large area
• takes many years- possibly decades- for this land to recover from the damage that may have taken a few minutes to cause

Question 9

How can cold environments be harmed by economic development?

Answer 9

example-
Oil pollution
- trees caused by the oil spill
- risk of fire, either started deliberately or by a lightning strike
- river has become polluted- lifeless
- river edge habitats polluted and destroyed- the vegetation may never recover
- electricty pylons will have resulted in tree clearance and environmental damage
- oil has leaked from broken pipeline

cold environments have rich reserves of oil, gas and other precious minerals such as gold
- oil and gas in particular are in high demand as a source of energy and countries are keen to exploit their resources for the economic benefits.
- to extract these, roads have to be built, damaging the tundra, as well as housing for hundreds of workers
= huge impact

Question 10

why do cold environments need to be protected?

Answer 10

• many indigenous people live a traditional life here- Inuit who live in Arctic Alaska, Canada and Greenland depend on the wildlife and survive by hunting and fishing
• cold environments are home to many birds, animals and plants, such as penguins, polar beard, the Artic fox and many species of tundra vegetation
• unpolluted and unspoilt, cold environments are important outdoor laboratries for scientific research such as the effects of climate change
• their beauty and potential for adventure attracts tourists who bring huge benefits to countries such as Norway (svalbard), Iceland and Alaska
• they provide opportunities for forrestry and fishing.

Question 11

How can risk to cold environments be reduced?

Answer 11

Use of technology- Trans- Alaskan pipeline

• 1969, oil discovered at Prudhoe Bay on the north coast of Alaska
• Winter sea ice in the Arctic Ocean prevented oil being transported by tanker
• 1974, pipeline opened, enabled oil to be transported the 1300km from Prudhoe Bay to the port of Valdez

Problem-

• crosses rivers and mountains such as the Brookes range
• • pumping stations keep the oil moving. The pipeline passes beneath rivers to mnimise the impact on the landscape
• oil from the ground is very hot (49) which helps it to flow, but could melt the permafrost
• • the pipeline is raised and insukated to retain heat and preventing it from melting the permafrost
• possible cracks caused by earthquakes can cause oil leaks
• • the pipeline is supported and can slide if earthquakes happen. The flow of oil stops automaticall if there is a leak.
• large herds of animals such as caribou migrate across the route of the pipeline
• • the pipeline is raised to allow caribou to migrate underneath

Question 12

How can risk to the environment be reduced- Action of governments- Alaska, USA

Answer 12

• The National Environmental Policy Act, ensuring that companies involved with the extraction and transportation of oil protect the natural environment and recognise the rights of the native people
• the creation of the westen artic reserve- a 9 million hectare protected wilderness managed by the department of the interior. home to thousands of caribou, millions of migratory birds, musk ox, wolves and even polar bears. Drilling for oil is kept away from sensitive areas.
• the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) overseas sustainable fisheries in Alaska, and protects marine habitats.

Question 13

How can risk to the environment be reduced- Internation agreements- the Antarctic Treaty

Answer 13

• in 1959 the Antarctic Treaty was signed by countries with territorial claims to Antarctica. Its main aim is to protect the natural environment of the largest wildness on Earth. Despite the discovery of valuable minerals, the Antarctic Treaty has been successfull in preventing economic development. The Treaty:
• • recognises the importance of the continent for scientific research, particularly into climate change
• controls tourism and keeps disturbance to a minimum

Question 14

How can risk to the environment be reduced- Conservation groups- WWF in Canada

Answer 14

The world wildlife fund (WWF) is a conservative group that helps to protect Arctic environments in Canada. It provides scientific info, expertise and resources
The WWF:
- works with local communities to manage critical ecosytems eg the Beaufort Sea
- supports scientific research to help protect important species such as polar bears, nar whal and Greenland Shark
- work with oil companies, local inuit organisations and government regulators to plan for a sustainable future for the Arctic.