what is conscience?
A person’s moral sense of right and wrong viewed as acting as a guide to one’s behaviour- inner voice.
what does Saint Paul say about God’s law (quotation)
God’s law is “woven into the very fabric of our creation”
what does Newman believe?
when a person follows conscience, they are simultaneously following a divine law. we feel responsibility, shame and fear of transgressing the voice of conscience which implies there’s one to whom we are responsible, before whom we are ashamed.
what is Aquinas’ view and approach?
THEOLOGICAL APPROACH- doesn’t view conscience as the ‘voice of God’, but rather a combination of the natural human desire to do what is right and reason (both created by God)
equation for conscience?
syneresis (natural inclination to do good and avoid evil- god’s design) + ratio (reason- human nature) = CONSCIENTIA
what is practical faculty? use analogy
not only works out what’s the right thing to do, but also what is practical given the circumstances.
WILKINSON AND WILCOCKSON use the analogy of an architect designing a house.
what does Aquinas believe?
There’s always a close connection between conscience and practical ratio (PRUDENCE- or practical reason involving understanding and judgement)
what’s conscientia? Aquinas’ view on mistakes?
the intellectual process of combining our desire to do right with our practical reason in order to reach a decision. Aquinas recognises that it is possible to make mistakes when we desire to do the right thing, but our reason (ratio) is faulty. we might be mistaken about the facts, or pressured into making a hasty decision
what is Vincible and Invincible Ignorance?
invincible ignorance= when we make mistakes when our intention was good, but we were wrongly informed. not ‘sins’. for example, a man suffering mental illness causes harm- incapable of sound judgement.
vincible ignorance- when we aren’t properly informed because we fail to use our common sense, or fail to acquaint ourselves with the facts.
what does Aquinas say about not following our conscience?
we are doing something which our reason tells us isn’t good-must always follow our conscience. if we feel guilty after the event, then we can use our reason to ascertain whether we were vincible or invincibly ignorant.
what is Freud’s view?
focused on our ‘psychic-apparatus’ (brain) which is made up of 3 parts: the id (desires and drives; pleasure seeking and self-centred e.g libido), the ego (rational self, realistic and organised; mediates between id and social interactions) and the superego (internalised voice of authority figures like parents, teachers, religion), the superego is our conscience. it punishes the ego with feelings of inferiority, anxiety and guilt.
what did freud recognise?
despite being atheist, he recognised the link between God and Guilt. he explains why we believe in God- throwback to primitive cultures who were afraid of natural events (storms, droughts, landslides etc)
if these events are caused by beings (God) living in the sky, or under the earth, then they become more under control- in the same way an angry baby can be calmed by feeding and speaking nicely, so to appease the God is causing our crops to fall by offering gifts of god and praising his greatness.
what is the oediupus complex?
in primitive times, tribes were dominated by a father figure, and the younger males were frustrated by his dominance and jealous of his relationship with their mothers, rose up to overthrow and kill him. in time they realised his dominance was necessary. this made them feel guilty about their own sexual behaviour because they recognise their father was right to place limits on them.
how does Freud explain monotheism?
suggesting that as babies our distant powerful fathers provide all that’s necessary for our survival. when looking over our cot, their faces dominate our vision. this translates into God the Father and sustainer of all things. For Freud then God is a father figure- we see him as a sustainer and dominant who demands sexual restraint. when we give in to our natural desires we feel guilt, and we pass this guilt on to our own children.
what is Joseph Fletcher’s View?
both freud and aquinas talk about conscience as a faculty of the mind (noun) something we have. for Fletcher, conscience is a VERB- something we do.
Fletcher’s supporting quotation?
” there is no conscience, conscience is merely a word for our attempts to make decisions creatively, constructively, fittingly” his interest is only in the reasoning for future actions whilst Freud and Aquinas recognise that conscience makes us reflect on past actions- irrelevant for fletcher
criticism of fletcher’s view?
he doesn’t explain what our reflections on past actions are if they aren’t ‘conscience’; when we feel guilty, if that’s not our conscience speaking, then what is?
Aquinas would agree that our intention is important, but his view of conscience also encourages us to properly inform ourselves, so that we are not ‘vincible ignorant’. for fletcher all that’s necessary is that we act out of love
what are the biblical and early Christian understandings of conscience?
ST PAUL- conscience is an awareness of good and bad, but it’s weak and can be mistaken
ST JEROME- conscience is the power to distinguish good from evil
AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO- conscience is the ‘voice of god’. God-given faculty to help us to determine what his law is, as laid down in the bible, intuitive.
aquinas and Butler’s belief on these understandings?
Aquinas believes it can be subject to error whereas, butler believes it’s of ultimate authority. Aquinas said you shouldn’t follow your conscience if it comes into conflict with Natural Law. aquinas’ view could explain why there are differences, however should it be considered a ‘voice’ or merely a ‘guide’
-non religious views about the conscience provide a significant challenge to the idea that it’s the voice of God.
Evaluation- Freud
+provides an account for individual differences-why some feel guilt and others don’t
+some bases in child development studies. though socialising with outside world (play) they learn how to deal with others and learn not to be selfish
- many people seem to feel the voice of conscience even when they’ve outgrown parental relationships or social values we originally inherited- not just superego?
- conscience more than just feeling of guilt? sense of approval?
- what about certain things that virtually all people regard as wrong?
modern developments: now conscience is 2 stage- ego and superego
Jean Piaget view?
there are 4 stages of cognitive development:
*SENSORYMOTOR STAGE (0-2) learns through senses, unaware of anything beyond itself
*PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7) child comes to an awareness of the world beyond itself; unconcerned about others, cannot perform activities involving reason
*CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11) child develops greater cognitive awareness- less self centred
*FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (11+) thinking skills are beginning to develop
what accompanies cognitive development?
development of moral reasoning. 2 stages of development
- HETERONOMOUS MORALITY (age 5-10) immature conscience, child looks beyond itself for morality, acts are shown to be moral or immoral by their observable consequences
- AUTONOMOUS MORALITY (age 10+) children develop own rules, increasing awareness of how rules operate and help society, code of conduct based upon a perception of socially approved behaviour, motive becomes more important, movement towards autonomous morality occurs when the child is less dependant on others for moral authority
Fromm’s approach?
initial approach- Authoritarian conscience
all humans are influenced by external authorities who administer rules and sanctions
-internalised by the individual, and a guilty conscience will rise when the individual feels they have displeased this authority.
modified approach- humanistic conscience, assesses and evaluates our behaviour, used as a measure by which we judge our success
error within conscience?
if it is God’s voice why does it error? why are there differences between what different christian denominations think on ethical issues?
R1) AUGUSTINE- product of the fall
R2) AQUINAS AND BUTLER- needs training and informing
if conscience is the ‘voice of god’ why do many non-religious people feel the need to obey the dictates of their conscience? universal part of living
this could suggest that conscience is therefore a societal construct or a universal thing from god unacknowledged by all
