1
Q
On the whole, what is the conservative view of human nature?
A
On the whole, conservatives have a pessimistic view of human nature.
The view of our intellectual, moral and psychological limitations made by most conservatives is essential in explaining their views of the state, society and the economy
2
Q
What imperfections do conservatives believe are part of human nature?
A
Psychological limitation
Intellectual limitation
Moral imperfection
3
Q
What do conservatives mean by moral imperfection?
A
- Believe humans are innately greedy and selfish
- Crime is a consequence of base human instincts and appetites; people can only be persuaded to behave in a civilised fashion if they are deterred from expressing their violent + anti-social impulses, and the only deterrent for this is law, backed up by the knowledge that it will be strictly enforced
- Leads to preference for strong government and ‘tough’ criminal justice regimes based on long prison sentences + use of corporal and even capital punishment
- Role of law is not to uphold liberty but to preserve order
- Hobbes; desire for ‘power after power’ is primary human urge
4
Q
What do conservatives mean by psychological limitation?
A
- People are fearful of isolation + instability
- People are drawn to the safe + familiar, and seek the security of ‘knowing their place’
- Led them to emphasise the importance of social order + be suspicious of the attractions of liberty
- Means they emphasise tradition + continuity across generations
- Hobbes; sacrifice liberty in the cause of social order
5
Q
What do conservatives mean by intellectual limitation?
A
- Believe the world is too complicated for humans to grasp fully
- Conservatives are suspicious of abstract ideas and systems of thought that claim to understand what is, they argue, incomprehensible
- Grounds conservative ideas in tradition, experience + history, adopting a cautious, moderate + pragmatic approach to the world
- Means in some circumstances they believe doing nothing may be better than doing something to ensure ‘cure is not worse than the disease’
- Oakeshott described the political world as ‘bottomless and boundless’
and wished to ensure that the ‘cure is not worse than the disease’
6
Q
Hobbes and the ‘state of nature’
A
- Said that if people were free and didn’t have to answer to any sort of higher power, then people would exhibit a ‘reckless desire’ for power leading to conflict and turning the state of nature into a ‘war of every man against every man’; life would become ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short’
- Leviathan; people jointly submit to the absolute authority of the state, which represents a ‘common power to keep them all in awe’ and was needed for order + security
7
Q
How does Hobbes’ state of nature contrast with liberalism?
A
Hobbes’ state of nature is violent chaos, meaning absolute power is needed
Locke said the state of nature was generally peaceful but insecure, and the government was needed to safeguard rights
8
Q
What is meant by tradition?
A
The institutions, customs and practices of society that have developed over time
e.g. monarchy, church, marriage, constitution, nuclear family
9
Q
What is the religious basis for the conservative attachment to tradition?
A
- Believed that the wold was created by a divine being, so saw society’s institutions and practices of society as ‘God-given’. Humans who attempt to alter these longstanding social arrangements are challenging the will of God and consequently are likely to undermine society rather than improve it
- This view has been largely superseded by the impact of Enlightenment thinking (emphasis on rationalism and anti-clericism) and the incorporation of obviously man-made institutions over time e.g. representative democracy
10
Q
Conservative support for tradition on the basis of…
A
- Accumulated wisdom; the institutions, customs and practices of the past have demonstrate their value to earlier societies as they have proved ‘fit for purpose’ over time and survived. For this reason, they should be preserved so current + future generations can also benefit from them
- Human need for belonging and identity; long established institutions, customs and practices are familiar and provide individuals with a historically based sense of belonging to a particular society
11
Q
Edmund Burke
A
- Said that change has to be undertaken with great caution, mindful of the delicate balance inherent in an organic society
- Tradition and empiricism should be respected because they represent practices passed down from one generation to the next
- Said the fundamental problem with the French Revolution was that it represented an attempt to create a new society + system of government based on abstract principles rather than lessons of the past
- In his view the state resembled a living organism like a plant that may be changed when necessary though gentle ‘pruning’ or ‘grafting’ to preserve the political stability + social harmony
- Said reform should be limited + cautious, take account of the past and be based on empiricism and tradition - revolutionary change threatened to cut off society’s ‘roots’ leading to complete social and political breakdown
- Tradition and empiricism represent the accumulated and ‘tested’ wisdom of the past residing in society’s long standing institutions, customs and practices, so they should be respected
12
Q
What did Burke say about society?
A
Burke argued that “society is indeed a contract… not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are yet to be born”
13
Q
The Individual and Society
A
Traditional conservatives (along with ONC and Neo Conservatives) argue that people are foremost dependent and security seeking. Therefore individuals do not and cannot exist outside of society.
These social groups include family, the work place, church, community, nation and others.
Society also provides individuals with sense of purpose, meaning, and identity.
Strong social ties protects against the development of anomie – a break down of rules and values which promotes a sense of rootlessness, purposelessness, and instability.
Conservatives consequently have a differing view of individual freedom and responsibility to society
Freedom is a willing acceptance of social obligations and ties by individuals who recognise their value. Freedom involves “doing ones duty”
If people don’t acknowledge and uphold these ties and obligations then society would descend into atomism
14
Q
What do traditional conservatives think about negative freedom?
A
They are reluctant to understand freedom in ‘negative’ terms in which the individual is left alone and suffers from anomie
15
Q
What is meant by organicism?
A
A belief that society operates like an organism or living entity the whole being more than a collection of its individual parts
16
Q
What is meant by an organic society?
A
- Society is more than a collection of individual parts; it is sustained by a fragile set of relationships, between and among its parts, if these relationships break down, society will break down
- An organic society is fashioned by natural necessity e.g. family is a product of natural social impulses
17
Q
What are the main implications of the conservative ‘organic’ metaphor for society?
A
- If society is organic, its structures + institutions have been shaped by forces beyond human control, and this should be preserved and respected
- Functionalist perspective to institutions; institutions develop and survive for a reason and the reason is that they contribute to maintaining the larger social whole
18
Q
What is meant by functionalism?
A
Theory that social institutions + practices should be understood in terms of the functions they carry out in sustaining the larger social system
19
Q
What does pragmatism mean to conservatives?
A
Pragmatism rejects theory and ideology in favour of practical experience - the approach to society should be flexible with decisions made on a basis of what works
Oakeshott - ‘to be Conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried’
20
Q
How is the conservative preference for pragmatism linked to their view of human rationality?
A
They believe that humans lack the intellectual ability + powers of reasoning to fully comprehend the complex realities of the world
21
Q
How did Burke associate pragmatism with gradual change?
A
He said cautious pragmatism would bring about change peacefully, through evolution and natural change should not be opposed because a state “without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation
22
Q
What is meant by change to conserve?
A
Idea that society should adapt to changing circumstances by introducing moderate reforms, rather than reject change outright and risk rebellion or revolution
23
Q
How has pragmatism been used by past Conservative governments?
A
1951-64 In opposition the Conservative government opposed many of Labour’s domestic reforms
Once back in power they made no attempt to reverse Labour’s nationalisation or to dismantle the welfare state
They made the pragmatic decision to retain Labour’s reforms as they recognised that they worked and were popular
24
Q
What do conservatives believe about hierarchy?
A
- Conservatives have traditionally seen society as naturally hierarchical, characterised by fixed social gradations.
- As a result social equality is rejected as undesirable and unachievable.
- Conservatives agree with liberals that individuals are naturally unequal, but they reject meritocracy.
Inequality is rooted in organic society. - Within society different groups have different functions that work together to create the whole.
- At the top is a ‘natural aristocracy’ who enjoyed wealth and privilege, but in return shouldered the responsibility to lead.
25
Why does conservatism reject social equality?
They believe that inequality is an inevitable feature of an organic society, and there is a natural inequality among individuals
26
Why does conservatism reject ‘meritocracy’? How does this link to organic society?
They reject meritocracy because their believe that inequality is not just a consequence of individual difference, but rather an inevitable features of an organic democratic society
27
What is the ‘natural aristocracy’ described by Burke?
The idea that talent and leadership are innate or inbred qualities that can't be achieved through effort or self-advancement
28
On what basis is liberal social contract theory rejected by Conservatives?
They believe authority develops naturally rather than being established by individuals, so authority cannot 'arise' from below
29
How does an emphasis on authority fit with the conservative view of human nature?
Authority is necessary and beneficial as everyone needs the guidance, support and security that comes from 'knowing where they stand'. Authority counters recklessness and anomie
Discipline is valued as a health respect for authority
Authority is constrained by the natural responsibility and obligations that it entails
30
What is paternalism to conservatives?
The idea of government by people who are best equipped to lead, by virtue of their birth, inheritance and upbringing
31
How was paternalism linked to the ‘natural aristocracy’ concept?
The 'natural aristocracy' presided over society much like a father over his family; the social elite provides leadership because of its innate abilities and its skills and talents cannot be obtained by hard work or self improvement:
- Those at the top of society have a duty to care for the lower social ranks
- Natural aristocracy have this authority because the wisdom + experience of paternalistic leaders confer natural authority as they 'know what is best' for society
32
Soft paternalism vs hard paternalism
Soft paternalism - when those who are the recipients give their consent
Hard paternalism - when paternalism is imposed, regardless of consent or opposition in a more authoritarian manner
33
Paternalism under Disraeli
- Disraeli warned that Britain was dividing into two nations – the rich and the poor – and that this increased the likelihood of social revolution.
- This could be averted only by the privileged in society recognising their social obligation and duty to look after the less fortunate.
- The well-off would preserve their advantages, but they would also alleviate the hardships faced by the lower orders and strengthen the social cohesion and stability of the nation.
- Disraeli’s one-nation paternalism blended self-
interest with principle.
- As prime minister, Disraeli translated this idea of paternalism into practice to a certain extent by passing a series of limited social reforms.
34
Paternalism under Conservative governments of the 50s and 60s
- Steered a central course between free-market economics and state planning, on the grounds that the former led to social fragmentation and failed to protect the poorest,
while the latter stifled individual initiative and entrepreneurial flair.
- accepted that the state had
an obligation to intervene in the economy and maintain the welfare state to combat poverty and
deprivation.
- improving conditions
for poorer groups was principally motivated by a desire to strengthen the hierarchical nature of
society by removing threats to the social order
35
Why did neo-liberals reject paternalism?
Neo-liberalism aims to reduce the size of the state so that the unregulated market can generate a more dynamic and efficient economy leading to increased growth and
prosperity - government intervention in the economy (a key element of the
one-nation conservative paternalistic approach) or state control undermines human initiative and
enterprise, resulting in economic stagnation.
36
Libertarianism
Libertarianism represents a competing value to paternalism.
The emphasis is on the right of an individual to liberty, with only minimal intervention by the state into people’s lives.
This strand has deep roots, but came to the fore during the rise of the ‘New Right’ in the 1970s and 80s.
Friedrich Hayek and Robert Nozick were particularly influential to the New Right.
37
Define libertarianism
A political philosophy that emphasises the right of individuals to liberty, advocating only minimal state intervention
38
In what ways was libertarianism evident in early conservative thought? Why is it conservative?
Evident in: Adam Smith's arguments for economic liberalism, Burke advocating for free trade and a market economy on the grounds that they were efficient, just and 'natural'
39
When and in what circumstances did libertarian conservatism emerge in its modern form?
In its modern form, it is more commonly known as 'New Right' or Neo-liberalism
Associated with Thatcher and Reagan
Rejects state intervention and champions the free market
Opposes Keynesian style demand management and welfare programmes
40
Explain the four libertarian justifications for a minimal state role in the economy
- Free market is the only mechanism that can effectively supply goods and services on the basis of demand
- By undermining financial confidence (through intervention) inflation inhibits all forms of economic + business activity
- Dismissed mixed economy + public ownership on the grounds of expense + efficiency, the government should focus on ensuring the highest possible levels of production, and that access to key economic resources is unrestricted
- Personal freedom can only be granted by 'rolling back' the state, particularly social welfare programmes
41
What was Nozick’s basic argument?
For a rights based libertarian system and a minimal state
42
Why did Nozick say that only a minimal state could be justified?
Due to 'self-ownership'; the individual should have the right to determine what can be done with the 'possession'
43
How did Kant influence Nozick's ideas?
His ideas were partly based on Kant's moral principal that humans should be treated as 'always an end and never as a means only'
Nozick argued that the assumption that individuals are inviable ends in themselves gives them rights to their lives, liberty and the rewards resulting from their labour
44
Explain Locke’s argument about ‘self-ownership’. How does this influence Nozick’s view of taxation?
Self-ownership is based on the idea that individuals own themselves – their bodies, talents, abilities and labour, and the rewards or products created by their talents, abilities and labour.
self-ownership also opposes taxation to fund welfare
programmes and supports the minimal state. Viewed from this perspective, such taxation
is a form of slavery – in effect, the state gives others an entitlement (in the form of welfare benefits) to part of the rewards of an individual’s labour. Citizens entitled to benefi ts become partial owners of the individual since they have partial property rights over his or her labour.
In this way, Nozick argued, the principle of self-ownership is undermined.
45
From when does traditional conservatism originate?
Originated in the late 18th century as a reaction to the Enlightenment and the French Revolution
46
What are the main commitments of traditional conservatism?
Organicism
Hierarchy
Paternalism
47
What is the traditional conservative view of organic society? How does this affect their view of change?
They regard society as a sort if living or organic entity with complex interconnections and relationships - any changes to 1 part will affect all other parts, possibly in unforeseen or negative, so radical and abrupt changes are to be avoided - society must evolve naturally through small, pragmatic reforms
48
Why is a hierarchical society just/desirable for traditional conservatives?
People don't have the same talents + abilities so its 'natural' that society should reflect this
It is a functional necessity because different people have to do different jobs, and are rewarded differently based on their contribution
49
How did traditional conservatives justify the monopolisation of leadership by an aristocracy?
On the grounds that it is natural since the upper class have been raised to govern and had been educated in the values of social obligation + public service
Noblesse oblige - nobility and privilege bring with them social responsibilities, notably the duty and obligation to care for those less fortunate
50
What was the political context of the mid 19th C.?
growing industrialisation, economic inequality, revolutionary upheaval in Europe
51
What two social problems did Disraeli identify in his novels?
Danger of Britain being divided into "two nations: the Rich and the Poor", emphasised the principal of social obligation, in stark contrast to extreme individualism dominant in the political establishment
52
In what ways was reform necessary when One Nation conservatism was emerging (mid 19th century)
Pragmatically - in stemming the tide of revolution and it would ultimately be in the favour of the rich
Morally - wealth + privilege brought with them social obligation, and society is held together by the acceptance of obligation and duty
53
Why did Disraeli argue for ‘welfarism’?
To strengthen national unity and preserve 'one nation'
54
What are the main features of Disraeli's One Nation Conservatism, and how would they help Disraeli achieve his main objective?
Maintenance of tradition institutions - offered a focus for national loyalty and identity across the classes
Imperialism - theme of empire appealed to all classes + linked Conservative values to the 'mass politics' that was beginning to emerge in Britain
Reforms to improve conditions for the working class - forged an alliance between the traditional ruling class and the workers, and to offset the negative effects of laissez-faire + remove the possibility of revolution
55
Macmillan's post war 'Middle Way'
Tried to navigate a path between unbridled liberalism + socialist collectivism
Form of planned capitalism - to be a 'mixed system' combining 'state ownership, regulation or control of certain aspects of economic activity with the drive and initiative of private enterprise'
56
Cameron's Compassionate Conservatism
Creation of a 'shared society' focusing more on the 'responsibilities we have to one another'
57
What is pragmatism, and what key thinkers are associated with it?
Pragmatism rejects ideology in favour of practical experience - approach to society should be flexible, with decisions made on the basis of what works.
It also implies a flexible approach to politics that considers what is in the best interests of the people
Associated with Micheal Oakeshott and Edmund Burke
Oakeshott - 'to be a Conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried'
58
How does pragmatism link to Conservatives' view of human rationality?
They contend that humans lack the ability and powers of reasoning to fully comprehend the complex realities of the world.
Conservatives tend to dimiss abstract ideas that claim to 'explain' or 'improve' human life and development. Principles such as human rights, equality and a classless society are dangerous because they can promote a radical reordering of society that leads to worse conditions
Conservatives try to avoid a rigid ideological approach to issues, preferring to act pragmatically, emphasising caution, moderation and historical continuity
59
What is the traditional conservative view of pragmatism?
For traditional conservatives, pragmatism was an essential element in facilitating 'natural' or inevitable change. This change shouldn't be opposed because 'without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation' (Burke)
Burke's conservatism maintained that cautious pragmatism would bring about necessary change peacefully, where revolution would lead to conflict and chaos
The key features of society (order, property, tradition and established institutions) can only be preserved through a pragmatic that recognises when it is necessary to 'change to conserve'
60
What is the one nation view of pragmatism?
Similar attitudes to social reform as traditional conservatives
Adopted a pragmatic 'middle way' approach to the economy, combining market competition with government regulation
This moderate economic course promotes growth and social harmony by encouraging wealth creation
61
What is meant by tradition?
The institutions, customs and practices of a society that have developed over time
62
What was the original conservative justification for tradition?
It had religious roots: those who believed the world was created by a divine being saw society's institutions and practices of society as 'God-given'. Humans who attempt to alter these are challenging the will of God and are likely to undermine, rather than improve society
This has been weakened by the impact of Enlightenment thinking and the incorporation of obviously man-made institutions
63
What are the conservative arguments for tradition?
Tradition constitutes the accumulated wisdom of the past:
Institutions, customs and practices of the past have demonstrated white value to earlier society as they have 'proved fit for purpose' over time and survived. Therefore, they should be preserved so that future generations can also benefit from the,
Burke - stated society was a '‘partnership not only between
those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are to be born’.
It provides society and the individual with a strong sense of identity:
Long-established institutions, customs and practices are familiar and provide individuals with a historically based sense of belonging to a particular society.
64
How do conservatives' views on tradition influence their view of change?
Change can only be justified if it evolves naturally in a peaceful, gradual
way in order to strengthen existing institutions, customs and practices.
65
Why do conservatives believe that tradition fosters social cohesion?
It offers humans a reassuring collective sense of who they are, and establishes powerful ties between people and specific societies.
Any attempt to implement radical, wide-ranging changes will cut people off from the ‘traditional’ basis of society and inevitably lead to instability, anxiety and insecurity.
66
What is the conservative view of human nature?
They have a pessimistic view of human nature - people are flawed and incapable of reaching a state of perfection
Human nature is immutable
Human imperfection has to be kept in check due to the human capacity for evil
67
What are the implications of the conservative view of human nature?
* a tough stance on law and order is required, to deter criminal behaviour
* as human nature cannot be transformed, foreign policy has to be based on national security
rather than ‘liberal’ notions of international co-operation and harmony
* human behaviour is competitive, so any successful political system will recognise that self-interest is a more powerful motivator than altruism.
68
In what ways do Conservatives see humans as flawed?
Psychologically, morally and intellectually
69
What is the conservative belief about organic society?
People cannot exist separately from society as a whole or from social groups
Society and social groups provide individuals with a sense of security and purpose, and prevent the development of anomie
In turn, humans accept the duties, responsibilities and bonds that go with belonging to society - for conservatives this represents true freedom
If people did not acknowledge and act on these responsibilities and bonds, human society would lack social cohesion and descend into atomism.
70
What is atomism?
The idea that society is made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals (also known as egoistical individualism). It can also describe increasing social breakdown and isolation.
71
What apparently contradictory ideological traditions is the New Right a 'marriage' between?
Liberal New Right (neoliberalism)
Conservative New Right (neoconservatism)
72
What do the two tradition that make up the New Right stand for?
Neoliberalism is a modernised version of classical liberalism based on a commitment to the free-market economy, the minimal state and individual freedom and responsibility
Neoconservatism is an updated form of traditional conservative social thinking based on commitment to order, traditional values and public morality
73
How does the New Right combine traditional, radical and reactionary elements?
Radical: determination to abandon government intervention in economic + social affairs and attack 'permissive' social attitudes
Traditional + reactionary - often appear to want to turn the clock back to the 1800s
74
When where New Right policies used and when were they influential?
They were used to combat the stagflation that orthodox interventionist policies couldn't address
They were influential in the US and UK under Thatcher and Reagan
75
Neoliberalism
- Individuals are self-reliant and capable of making rational decisions in their own interests
- Reject collectivism
- Believe in a minimal state
- Government intervention in people's lives should be eliminated
76
Why is the liberal new right anti-statist?
They believe that government intervention causes economic problems or makes them worse
77
What do the liberal new right see as the virtues of the free-market?
They view the virtues of the free market as the guarantee of individual freedom, and its ability to promote economic efficiency and foster wealth creation
78
In what ways did Friedman & Hayek challenge the Keynesian idea of a mixed-economy?
Through monetarism and supply-side policies
Monetarism - government reduce inflation by controlling the money supply through cuts in public spending
Friedman asserted that Keynesian policies to stimulate demand create inflation by encouraging governments to print too much money or provide too much credit
79
Why did Thatcher prefer private over public provision?
She believed nationalised industries were inefficient + lacked dynamism associated with the private sector's need to generate profit
80
How does a belief in atomistic individualism also underpin neo-liberal anti-statism?
The freedom of the maker is the guarantee of individual freedom, which can only be preserve by opposing collectivism and rolling back the state
81
On what basis does Neo-liberalism object to welfare?
It creates a dependency culture and infringes on property rights, it institutionalises poverty and unemployment and undermines atomistic individualism
82
How does individualism link with prosperity? (neoliberalism)
Acting in self-interest will lead to efficient allocation of resources, growth and wealth creation
83
How does ownership of private property provide security? (New Right)
Gives people a sense of confidence and assurance, and something to 'fall back on' - needed due to humans psychological limitations
84
What social values can private property bring? (New Right)
Property reflects merit, and property ownership promotes the values of respect for law, authority and social order as property owners have a stake in society - links to organic society, and can prevent anomie
85
How does property support the idea of tradition? (New Right)
It has been passed down from generation to generation
86
What was the fundamental problem in society identified by neo-conservatives, and what was the solution to this?
Fundamental problem was social fragmentation, seen as the product of liberal reform and the spread of progressive values
Authority was the solution to this as it acts as a kind of 'social glue', binding people together, giving them a sense of who they are, and what is expected of them
87
What does neoconservatism have in common with traditional / organic conservatism?
Emphasis on authority
88
How does neoconservatism differ from paternalistic forms of conservatism?
It looks to strengthen community by restoring authority and imposing social discipline rather than maintaining community by reducing poverty + narrowing material inequalities
89
What are the principal concerns of neo-conservatism?
Law and order
Public morality
National identity
90
What problems did neoconservatives attribute to a decline in authority in the 1960s?
Rising crime, delinquency and anti-social behaviour
91
Why did neoconservatives argue that people needed authority?
It provides security of 'knowing where you stand'
92
Why did neoconservatives argue that permissiveness is damaging?
It undermines the established structures of society by permitting and even encouraging the question of authority
93
Social authoritarianism in neoconservatism
Can be seen in neo-conservative calls for the strengthening of the family: family is naturally hierarchical and patriarchal - if these authority relationships are weakened, children will be brought up without a set of decent moral values and with little respect for their elders
94
What do neoconservatives see as the root cause of crime?
Human nature
95
How do neoconservatives argue that crime can best be countered?
Fear of punishment, which can only be effective if it is severe
e.g. calls for restoration of death penalty in US in 1980s, 'short sharp shock' regime in the UK in 1980s
96
Why did the 1960s see a rise in permissiveness, and what was the neoconservative response to this?
Rising affluence in the post-war period led to a growing willingness to question and criticise conventional moral and social standards
The New Right saw this as a serious threat to established values and common morality upon which the stability of society was founded, so emphasised support for 'Victorian values'
97
What did neoconservatives see as the 2 dangers of a permissive society?
Freedom to choose values may lead people to choose immoral ones
Moral pluralism as a threat to social harmony + order
98
Why do neoconservatives value the nation?
It binds society together by giving it a common cultural and civic identity
99
How do neoconservatives define the nation?
An organic entity that arises from a natural tendency to be drawn to others who are similar to oneself
100
Why do neoconservatives believe that multiculturalism represents a threat to the nation?
Increased cultural diversity weakens the bonds of nationhood, threatening political community and creating the spectre of radical and ethnic conflict
101
What conservative thinkers are associated with pragmatism?
Micheal Oakeshott and Edmund Burke
102
What is pragmatism?
Pragmatism rejects theory and ideology in favour of practical experience - the approach to society should be flexible, with decisions to be made on the basis of what works
Oakeshott - 'to be a Conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried'
Implies a flexible approach to politics that considers what is in the best interests of the people
103
How does Conservatives preference for pragmatism link to their view of human nature?
They contend that humans lack the intellectual ability and powers of reasoning to fully comprehend the complex realities of the world
Principles such as human rights, a classless society and equality are dangerous because they promote a radical reordering of society
They try to avoid a rigid ideological approach to issues, preferring to act in a pragmatic way that emphasises caution, moderation and a sense of historical continuity
104
What is the traditional conservative approach to pragmatism?
It was an essential element in facilitating 'natural' or inevitable change. This should not be opposed as a state 'without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation' - Burke
The key feature of society (order, property, tradition and established institutions) can only be preserved through a pragmatic policy
105
What is the one nation conservative approach to pragmatism?
Adopted a pragmatic 'middle way' approach to the economy - argue that it promotes growth and social harmony by encouraging wealth creation
106
What is tradition?
The institutions, customs and practices of a society that have developed over time
107
What is the original conservative justification for tradition?
It has religious roots - saw societies institutions as 'God-given' and humans who attempt to alter these longstanding social arrangements are challenging the will of God and are consequently likely to undermine society
108
What non-secular arguments do Conservatives offer for the value of tradition?
Tradition constitutes the accumulated wisdom of the past, and these institutions, customs and practices have demonstrated their value to earlier societies as they have proved 'fit for purpose' over time and survived, so should be preserved so that current and future generations can also benefit from them. This was Burke's point when he state that society was a 'partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are yet to be born
Tradition also provides society and the individual with a strong sense of identity
109
How does the conservative view of tradition influence their attitude towards change?
Reform or change can only be justified if it evolves naturally in a peaceful, gradual way in order to strengthen existing institutions, customs, and practices
110
Why do conservatives argue that tradition fosters social cohesion?
Tradition offers humans a reassuring collective sense of who they are, and establishes powerful ties between people and societies
Any attempt to implement radical, wide-ranging changes will cut people off from the 'traditional' basis of society, inevitably leading to instability, anxiety and insecurity
111
What is the conservative view of human nature?
They have a pessimistic view of human nature, arguing that people are flawed and incapable of reaching a state of perfection
Human imperfection has to be kept in check due to the human capacity for evil
112
What are the implications of the conservative view of human nature?
- Tough stance on law and order required to deter criminal behaviour
- As human nature cannot be transformed, foreign policy has to be based on national security rather than 'liberal' notions of international cooperation and harmony
- Human behaviour is competitive, so any successful political system will recognise that self-interest is a more powerful motivator than altruism
113
What is the conservative belief about organic society?
People are dependent and self-seeking so cannot exist separately from society or social groups
Society provides individuals with a sense of security and purpose, and prevent the development on anomie
In turn, humans accept the duties, responsibilities and bonds that go with belonging to society - this represents true freedom
114
What leads conservatives to endorse organicism?
View of human imperfection
115
What are the considerations of organic society?
- The internal elements of an organic society or state cannot be randomly refigured, and organic society is maintained by a delicate set of relationships, and if this balance is disturbed, society will be undermined
- An organic society is based on natural needs and instincts, rather than ideological blueprint, and members should sustain this balance
116
What belief underpins the conservative belief in organic society?
Belief in hierarchy and authority - they argue that society is naturally hierarchal.
This is to do with the fact that individuals differ in ability, and conservatives maintain that organic society must rest on inequality, as different classes have to perform different roles
Organic society produces natural inequalities in terms of financial rewards and social status
117
How do conservatives justify inequality in an organic society?
The most advantages also bear the heaviest social responsibilities, so a hierarchical society encourages paternalism as a means to ensure social cohesion
118
What reinforces the hierarchical structure of organic society?
It is reinforced by authority
Authority develops naturally in much the same way as society
This form of authority works in a top-down manner and shapes the relations between all social groups and permeates all social institutions
119
What is the importance of authority for conservatives?
It provides humans with security, direction and support, and promotes social cohesion by giving people a sense of how they 'fit in'
120
What are the limitations on authority?
Conservatives see those holding authority as limited by the natural responsibilities that accompany their privileged position
121
What is the traditional conservative view of paternalism?
They argue that the 'natural aristocracy' presided over society; the social elite provides leadership because of its innate or hereditary abilities.
Its skills and talents cannot be obtained by hard work or self improvement, and those at the top of society have a duty to care for the lower social ranks
Wisdom and experience of paternal leaders confers natural authority because they 'know what is best' for society - these leaders were traditionally drawn from the aristocracy because they had been educated in the values of social obligation and public service
Politics Component 1
flashcards
Decks in class (12)
# Cards
-
Democracy and Participation73
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Democracy and Participation - evidence106
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Political Parties84
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Political Parties - evidence169
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Electoral Systems36
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Electoral Systems - evidence43
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Voting Behaviour and the Media39
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Voting Behaviour and the Media - evidence91
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Socialism73
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Evidence (Blurting) - Socialism5
-
Liberalism110
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Conservatism121
