conservativism: differing views

Question 1

hierarchy and paternalism (traditional conservativism)

Answer 1

• the main ideas of traditional conservatism are hierarchy and paternalism
• the paternalism of traditional conservatism is more authoritarian
• paternalistic and hierarchical ideas of traditional conservatism evolved into one-nation ideas of the noblesse oblige
• traditional conservatism believes society is naturally hierarchical and based on inequalities

Question 2

society (traditional conservativism)

Answer 2

• for traditional conservatives, society is a living entity with complex relationships
• changes to one part of society will affect the rest of society and so gradual change is preferred over radical change
• for traditional conservatives, reform to society must be pragmatic and learn from past lessons to ensure practical solutions are established

Question 3

rise of the new right

Answer 3

• emerged in the 1970s as the main rival to one nation conservatism
• brought together two distinct strands – neo liberalism and neo conservativism
• new right thinking gained momentum in the 1970s as the interventionist policies of Western governments failed to combat stagflation
• new right conservativism was prominent in the 1980s in the UK and the USA and became popularly linked with PM Thatcher and President Reagan

Question 4

the development of the new right

Answer 4

• for most of the 20th century, conservatism in the UK (and most of western Europe) stressed order, authority and traditional communities but their support for private property and capitalism was tempered by a fear that market forces could generate gross inequalities that would outrage the majority of working-class voters
• as a result, the new right conservatives in Europe and the UK supported interventionalist economic policies, such as Keynesianism, and high public spending on state welfare
• neoliberalism is principally associated with philosopher Friedrich von Hayek
• Hayek’s views were subsequently reinforced by economist Milton Freidman

Question 5

neoliberalism and neo conservativism

Answer 5

• neo liberalism – an updated form of classic liberalism that calls for a free market economy, a minimal state and individual freedom and responsibility
• neo conservativism – a modernised version of traditional conservative social thinking that emphasises social order, traditional values and public morality

Question 6

features of the new right

Answer 6

• radical – the new right opposes economic and social intervention by the government and adopts anti-permissiveness and moral choices
• traditional – neo conservatives endorse traditional views such as family values, respect for authority, and the benefits of hard work
• reactionary – the new right often appear to regard the 19th century as a golden age of economic freedom and individual responsibility, a reactionary person or attitude favours a return to an earlier situation or period on the grounds that is possessed positive features that are currently lacking, the term is usually associated with right wing politics

Question 7

new right and conservative principles

Answer 7

• pragmatism – seen as accepting aspects of other ideologies that have been seen to work and are popular and reflected in society now, such as acknowledging the move away from a class based society
• tradition – policy has been updated to reflect the new traditions of individualism and the free market, which have now become the norm, in this context, the new right can still be seen to be upholding and promoting tradition
• human imperfection – humanity is still seen as self-interest but along liberal lines: this is not necessarily seen as overly negative and therefore, the economy can be left to its own devices; however, it is important for the government to instil morals into society to avoid the worst excesses of human self interest
• organic society – the individual is far superior to society, if the latter even exists, everyone is, therefore, fully free to determine their own position in society, entirely free from government control
• paternalism – paternalism is no longer relevant in economic terms as the free market is trusted to regulate itself and people should not rely on the government too much; the state has a stricter role in that it focuses primarily on preserving law and morality
• libertarianism – incorporates the neo liberal principles of individualism, which is more important than society and limited government, in order to allow the individual to flourish, as well as an absolutely free market (laissez faire)

Question 8

neo conservativism (new right)

Answer 8

• neoconservatives are social conservatives who believe that changes in society have led to a break down of hierarchy and law and order in society
• they disagree with permissiveness and changes in public morality, such as social changes like acceptance of homosexuality, divorce and abortion
• neoconservatives wish for a return to law and order and are tough on crime - for example by giving police greater powers of stop and search

Question 9

neo liberalism (new right) - individualism

Answer 9

• neoliberalism believes that individuals are rational and self-interested, which is termed atomistic individualism
• neoliberals believe that freedom can only be preserved through less government intervention
• for neoliberals, the free market is a guarantee of individual freedom
• the welfare state limits freedom and undermines atomistic individualism because people become dependent on state welfare

Question 10

neoliberalism (new right)

Answer 10

• neoliberalism is associated with a free-market economy and less government intervention in the economy
• in the 1980s Thatcher deregulated the stock market (known as the ‘big bang’) and privatised the industries that were nationalised after the second world war
• privatisation is when publicly owned companies and goods are sold, so private individuals and companies own and control them
• Thatcher privatised coal and steel companies. Privatisation is supposed to make companies more efficient and competitive

Question 11

one nation conservativism

Answer 11

• one-nation conservatism is the idea of government in the interests of all
• the Conservative Party changed to make sure that they remained in power by appealing to working-class voters across the UK, rather than only appealing to and taking care of the interests of the landed, wealthy elite
• one-nation conservatism is centred around the ideas of noblesse oblige (privilege entails responsibility), change to conserve, and supporting the working classes

Question 12

noblesse oblige (one nation)

Answer 12

• noblesse oblige is a French term which is taken to mean the obligation the rich, well-off and high-status people in society have to help those less fortunate than themselves
• noblesse oblige is closely associated with one nation conservatism and in the present day with ‘compassionate conservatism’ - it is the idea that people of these high social positions should use the power that they have from these positions to help others
• conservatives believe in hierarchy and natural inequalities - and so there will always be people of a higher status and people of a lower status
• people of a high status have an obligation to help others. Noblesse oblige reinforces the idea that there should be a ruling elite

Question 13

one nation and core conservative principles

Answer 13

• pragmatism – seen as accepting economic and social developments and finding practical responses to their shortcomings, such as limiting the negative aspects of capitalism, in addition, proper responses need to be found to prevent the popularity of other ideologies
• tradition – seen as a good starting point and a reference for what has worked but some changes must be made in order to preserve it as much as possible and so preserve order, reform is considered as a method of avoiding revolution
• human imperfection – people are self-interested though this is blamed, at least partly, on the growth of capitalism; this means that the state needs to fix huge gaps in inequality in order to prevent the disillusionment of the lower class
• organic society – society is important and should still be considered as greater than the individuals within it but there is less of a focus on a strict hierarchy given that the acceptance of capitalism allows for social mobility
• paternalism – the state is still seen as similar a father to its children and perhaps even more so than before as it now has a more active role to ensure no one suffers too badly under capitalism, though again, this is in order to preserve order in society
• libertarianism – opposition to liberal ideas, but there is an acceptance that free market capitalism is here to stay

Question 14

development of one nation conservativism

Answer 14

• although the governments of Canning and Peel served to stem the effects of the French Revolution, the threat of disorder and insurrection persisted through the 19th century, fuelled by loud demands for greater democracy within the UK’s political system
• of particular importance to this development were politicians like Benjamin Disraeli in Britain and Otto Von Bismarck in Germany
• sensing that socialism, with its stress upon class conflict, was a new and grave threat to stability and tradition, conservatives like Disraeli and Bismarck understood the case for orderly change would have to be refined
• they were also aware that to ensure social cohesion and orderly change, new themes were needed to offset the class-conscious politics encourages by early socialists like Marx

Question 15

Disraeli and Bismarck

Answer 15

• Disraeli and Bismarck, however, understood nationalism’s conservative potential; unlike contemporary liberals, whose individualistic outlook led them to deny social class conservatives like Disraeli embraced class differences – in a way that fostered unity rather than rupture
• against the background of one nation conservativism, Disraeli and Bismarck argued that a society’s classes were, in fact, all members of the same national ‘family’ and that revolutionary politics represented an attack on the nation itself
• for Disraeli, the nation was not an alternative status quo but the essence of the status quo, but the essence of the status quo, with the existing nation state being something that all classes had a vested interest in defending
• the one nation conservatives updated Burke’s notion of an organic affinity between a nation’s richer and poorer classes, arguing that the nation’s aristocracy had a paternalistic duty to ‘elevate the condition of the people’
• once this obligation was recognised by all classes, Disraeli and Bismarck asserted, social and political progress could be achieved harmoniously and without the horrors of class war and revolution
• Disraeli remarked ‘the palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy’

Question 16

one nation and economics

Answer 16

• in the pursuit of this ‘one nation’ strategy, neither Disraeli nor Bismarck advocated mere philanthropy on the part of society’s ‘haves’
• in a way that would bever have occurred to previous generations of conservatives, endorsed state sponsored social reform, thereby distinguishing conservativism form the minimal state principles of classical liberalism
• they regarded laissez-faire individualism, like a class-based socialism, as the enemy of the one nation
• as a result, the one nation conservatism of the mid-late 19th century became associated with legislation that tempered the effects of laissez-faire capitalism, supposedly on behalf of the nation’s working classes
• as a result, the one nation conservativism of the mid late 19th century became associated with legislation that tempered the effects of laissez-faire capitalism, supposedly on behalf of the nation’s working classes
• Bismark’s conservativism also led to the imposition of tariffs and import controls, thus confirming traditional conservatism’s ambivalent attitudes to free market capitalism
• one nation conservativism emerged in the 19th century in response to the impact of laissez-faire capitalism and industrialisation

Question 17

emergence of one nation conservativism

Answer 17

• the rise of laissez-fair capitalism in the 19th century led to fears that a self-interested individualism was undermining the basis of the organic society and the idea of social responsibility
• growing industrialisation during the same period led to concern that Britain was becoming ‘two nations’ (the rich and the poor) and that this division would destabilise society, sharpen class conflict and possibly lead to revolution
• one nation conservatism softened the ideas of paternalism, seeing it as the responsibility of the well off to look after the less fortunate

Question 18

key ideas of Disraeli’s one nation conservativism

Answer 18

• maintenance of traditional institutions – Disraeli was determined to protect traditional British institutions because they had proved themselves over time, provided stability and created a sense of national loyalty and identity across the classes
• support for imperialism – Disraeli argued that the British Empire strengthened national pride and Britain’s influence in the world. Imperialism appealed to all classes and linked conservatism with the emerging ‘mass’ politics of the late 19th century
• social and other reforms for the working class – reforms were introduced to create an alliance between the traditional ruling class and the workers, offset the negative effects of laissez-faire capitalism and reduce social discontent

Question 19

fascism (one nation)

Answer 19

• the spread of socialism and communism after WW1 and the emergence of fascism prior to WW2 were politically seismic events, both having an impact on traditional conservativism
• for most of the 20th century, conservatives regarded the existence of the Soviet Union as the most powerful example of the threat now posed by egalitarianism which inherently challenged conservative belief in property, hierarchy and modest reform
• until the late 20th century, it was common for conservatives to lament that socialism and communism were inevitable unless stern political action was taken
• traditional conservativism sought to temper the effects of a capitalist economy with a view to sustaining a society based on property ownership and inequality
• Macmillan spoke of a ‘middle way’ between capitalism and socialism, one that would address economic inequalities while respecting property rights, cultural tradition, national identity and other conservative themes
• although Macmillan did not become PM until the 1950s, it was clear as early as the 1930s that conservatives were willing to sanction a much greater degree of state intervention so as to protect privilege and stifle socialism
• this was opportunistic and pragmatic, they needed to win elections, and these were now dominated by working class voters, not property-owning voters

Question 20

christian democracy (one nation)

Answer 20

• as a response to fascism
• outside the UK, traditional conservativism evolved rather differently, mainly because European nations felt the effects of fascism more acutely
• revolution, violent nationalism, totalitarian government, military defeat and national humiliation all affected conservative thinkers
• overlaps: same belief in Judeo-Christian morality as a force for binding society together, same belief in authority and hierarchy, same commitment to social conservatism, same emphasis on marriage and family life and scepticism towards socially liberal causes, same scepticism towards free-market economics, same acceptance of a large state
• what makes Christian democracy distinct from UK and American conservativism is its attitude towards the nation-state – fascism led conservatives to be wary of nationalism and patriotism
• this made post-war conservatives amendable to supranationalism
• for many British conservatives, meanwhile, the suspicion has always been that the real aim of Christian democracy’s supranationalism is to eliminate ‘the nation’ as a feature of conservative philosophy so some regard it as ‘no-nation conservativism’

Question 21

core conservative principles and traditional conservativism

Answer 21

• pragmatism – seen largely as being about respecting the status quo and the wisdom of the past, which should not be discarded lightly, reform is considered a potential problem as it may lead to revolution
• tradition – seen as gospel, something to revere and stick to religiously as the culmination of the wisdom of past generations, it has stood for so long because it is good
• human imperfection – humanity is imperfect: It is not driven by reason but by lust for powers and so it cannot be trusted to rule in the interests of anyone else, power will be abused for personal gain
• organic society – society is greater than the sum of the individuals within it. The interests of society outweigh those of the individuals within it, there is a natural hierarchy in society that is rigid and should be adhered to in order to preserve order
• paternalism – the state is seen as a father to its people and the ruling class naturally fits this role as it is economically disinterested and so is able to govern in the interest of all and to care for them, which is their responsibility (noblesse oblige)
• libertarianism – opposition to liberal ideas

Question 22

the development of traditional conservativism

Answer 22

• traditional conservativism is best understood as a set of political ideas that were worked out as a response to the French revolution of 1789
• initially, traditional conservativism, had reaction and pragmatic branches, but is can also be seen as a psychological disposition within all of us
• traditional conservatives can be understood as a reactionary doctrine, partially influenced by the ideas of Hobbes, who believed in a feudal hierarchic order of society
• these ideas were challenged by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the events of the French Revolution, as well as the changing dynamics of state and society caused by the industrial revolution (the need for social class)
• Burke offered the first philosophically coherent objection to what the French Revolution represented

Question 23

differing views and tensions within traditional conservativism

Answer 23

• some argue that Burke’s thesis merely provided a sophisticated justification for existing society – one in which he and other members of the ‘ruling class’ had a vested interest
• however, there can be no doubt that this shaped the origins and development of conservatism
• tory MPs William Pitt, George Canning and Robert Peel were essentially conservative in their political practice, they: displayed a reverence for order and property, extolled tradition, showed antipathy to revolutionary change, endorsed the notion that society comprised a multitude of small communities (little platoons), insisted that society and state emerged ‘organically’ (could not be created), praised experience and evidence over theory, defended the principle of paternalistic, aristocratic rule
• Burke’s influence was most marked in core idea of ‘change to conserve’, this principle was duly applied by a series of ‘enlightened Tory’ governments in the early 19th century governments which sought to avert the spread of revolutionary ideas by embracing moderate reform in the name of continuity

Question 24

features of traditional conservativism

Answer 24

• living organism – society is an organic body with complex interconnections and relationships between its component parts
• hierarchy – an organic society had to be organised as a hierarchy because people are not equal, different jobs are rewarded differently depending on the contribution they make
• gradual reform – change or reform has to be introduced gradually overtime and e based on past experience in order to preserve the balance or ‘fabric’ of the organic society; sudden or radical change is likely to be harmful
• pragmatism – any attempt to create a perfect society using abstract theories and principles will fail since such an approach is not based on previous human experience and pragmatism
• traditional institutions – tried and tested traditional institutions (e.g., the Church, the monarchy) represent the accumulated experience and wisdom of the past. These bind society together through ties of duty, loyalty and affection

Question 25

natural aristocracy (traditional conservative)

Answer 25

- Burke maintained that the ‘true natural aristocracy’ should govern - these are the people with the ability, experience and inclination to lead the nation wisely in the interest of the whole society - Burke thought this small governing elite would be largely (but not exclusively) drawn from the hereditary aristocracy - traditional conservative defence of aristocratic rule: rule by the aristocracy was natural since, for generations, the upper class had been raised and educated to govern at all levels in society, as large property holder, they also had a significant stake in society; the longstanding practice of aristocratic rule was based on paternalism and the concept of noblesse oblige - this meant that those in authority were best placed, and has a duty, to make decisions on behalf of society as a whole