1
Q
Boundary maintenance - Durkheim & Cohen
A
Durkheim - the purpose of punishment is to reaffirm society’s shared rules, reinforcing social solidarity
Cohen - media coverage of crime and deviance often creates ‘folk devils’, dramatise wrongdoing and publicly shame the offender
2
Q
Adaption and change - Durkheim
A
all change starts with an act of deviance
Too much crime means that there are not enough shared values
Too little crime means that society controls its members too much
3
Q
Positive functions of crime - Davis & Polsky
A
Davis - prostitution acts as a safety valve for the release of men’s sexual frustrations without threatening the nuclear family
Polsky - pornography safely channels a variety of sexual desires away from alternatives
4
Q
Cultural factors - Merton
A
society’s goals
5
Q
Structural factors - Merton
A
economic inequality which causes strain
6
Q
Merton - 5 adaptations to strain
A
conformity = accept the goals and the means
innovation = Accept the goals but reject the means - criminals
ritualism = reject the goals but accept the means
retreatism = reject the goals and the means
rebellion = reject the goals and the means, find new ways of living
7
Q
Positives of Merton
A
studies show:
high rates of property crime
higher crime among poorer members
8
Q
Negatives of Merton
A
Accepting official statistics
Too determinist
Ignores class/power structures
9
Q
Cohen - subcultural strain theories
A
Status frustration - face a problem of adjustment to the low status they are given by society so they resolve this by rejecting these values
Alternative status hierarchy: inversion of values - delinquent subculture inverts the values of mainstream society
10
Q
Cloward & Ohlin - three subcultures
A
Criminal - provides youths with apprenticeships and employment opportunities in crime
Conflict - results in high levels of social disorganisation and violence provides a release for frustration
Retreatist - not everyone who wants to be a criminal succeeds so they turn to a retreatist subculture based on drug use
11
Q
Becker - deviance
A
deviant behaviour is simply behaviour that people label
12
Q
Cicourel - negotiation of justice
A
officers’ typifications led them to concentrate on certain ‘types’, and results in law enforcement showing a class bias
justice is not fixed but negotiable
13
Q
interactionists - crime stats
A
official crime statistics are socially constructed
the outcome depends on the label they attach to the individual affected by stereotypes
14
Q
Lemert - primary & secondary deviance
A
primary deviance - acts that have not been publicly labelled and mostly go uncaught
secondary deviance = the result of societal reaction of labelling
15
Q
master status - Lemert
A
once an individual is labelled others may come to see them only in terms of this label
16
Q
deviance amplification spiral
A
the attempt to control deviance leads to an increase in the level of deviance
17
Q
disintegrative and reintegrative shaming
A
disintegrative shaming - not only the crime but also the criminal is labelled as bad and the offender is excluded from society
reintegrative shaming - labelling the act but not the actor
18
Q
rejection of official statistics - suicide
A
official statistics are socially constructed and tell us about the activities of the people who construct them, not the real rate of crime or suicide in society
official statistics are merely a record of the labels coroners attach to deaths
19
Q
institutionalism
A
on admission, the inmate undergoes a ‘mortification of the self’, in which their old identity is symbolically ‘killed off’ and replaced by a new one: inmate
20
Q
moral entrepreneurs
A
people who lead a ‘moral crusade’ to change the law
21
Q
Marxism - capitalism is criminogenic
A
poverty may mean that crime is the only way for working class people to survive
alienation and lack of control may lead to frustration and aggression
the profit motive encourages a mentality of greed and self-interest
22
Q
selective enforcement
A
powerless groups such as the working class and ethnic minorities are criminalised but the police tend to ignore the crimes of the more powerful (white collar crimes)
23
Q
anti-determinism - Taylor et al
A
Marxism is too deterministic
crime is a meaningful action and a conscious choice that often has a political motive
24
Q
white collar crime - occupational & corporate
A
occupational crime = committed by employees for their own personal gain often against the organisation for which they work
corporate crime = committed by employees for their organisation in pursuit of its goals
25
the abuse of trust
high-status professionals occupy positions of trust and respectability, which gives them opportunity to abuse this
e.g. Harold Shipman murdered hundreds of his patients, dentists have claimed payments from the NHS for treatments they haven’t carried out etc.
26
de-labelling
businesses and professionals have the power to avoid labelling
they can afford expensive experts to help them avoid schemes they are involved in
27
biological differences - causes of crime (Wilson, Herrnstein & Murray)
make some people innately more likely to commit crimes than others
the main cause of crime is low intelligence
28
socialisation and the underclass - causes of crime
the best agency of socialisation is the nuclear family
crime rates increase because of a growing underclass and welfare dependency (lone-parents)
29
rational choice theory
if the perceived rewards of the crime outweigh the cost then people will be likely to offend
30
Felton - requirements for a crime to occur
motivated offender
suitable target
the absence of a capable guardian
31
tackling crime - right realism
it is essential to maintain the orderly character of neighbourhoods to prevent crime taking hold
the police should focus on controlling the streets
32
zero tolerance as a myth - Young
police need arrests to justify their existence so they arrest people for minor deviant acts
the ‘success’ of zero tolerance was just a product of the police’s way of coping with a decline that had already occured
33
accusations of other theories - left realism
Marxism neglects working-class crimes and its effects
Labelling theorists neglect working-class people who suffer at the hands of criminals
Neo-Marxists romanticise working-class criminals as ‘Robin Hoods’
34
relative deprivation - causes of crime (left realists)
today’s society is more prosperous but also more crime ridden
people are now more aware of relative deprivation due to the media and advertising
increasing individualism undermines the values of mutual support, leading to crime
35
subcultures - causes of crime (left realism)
still subscribe to the values of mainstream society but the opportunity to achieve these is blocked, so they resort to street crime instead
36
marginalisation - causes of crime (left realism)
lack clear goals and organisations to represent their interests
hold a sense of resentment and frustration which they express through violence and crime
37
economic exclusion - left realism
the poor are left out
38
cultural inclusion - left realism
we all share the same cultural products
39
the falling crime rate - left realism
because crime is a social construction, it may continue to be seen as a problem despite rated having fallen
40
policing and control - left realism
police spend too little time actually investigating crime
police need to improve their relationship with local communities and crime control cannot be left to the police alone
41
the chivalry thesis
men are socialised to act in a chivalrous way towards women
the criminal justice system is more lenient so female crimes are less likely to end up in the official statistics
females are more likely to receive a fine and less likely to be sent to prison
42
evidence against the chivalry thesis
if women appear to be treated more leniently it ,any simply be because their offences are less serious
43
bias against women
double standards - courts punish girls not boys for promiscuous sexual activity
women who do not conform to accepted standards are punished more harshly
44
Functionalist sex role theory
boys are encouraged to be tough, aggressive and risk taking, meaning they are more disposed to commit acts of violence
boys reject feminine models of behaviour
boys are more likely to turn to all-male street gangs as a source of masculine identity
45
patriarchal control
girls are less likely to be allowed to come and go as they please, or stay out late
women’s domestic role imposes severe restrictions on time
women are controlled in public places by threat or fear
46
Carlen - class and gender deals
the class deal = women who work will be offered material rewards with a decent standard of living and leisure opportunities
the gender deal = patriarchal ideology promises were material and emotional rewards from family life by conforming to the norms of a conventional domestic role
47
the liberation thesis
as women become liberated from patriarchy, their crimes will become as frequent and as serious as men’s
women no longer just commit traditional ‘female’ crimes but now also commit violent and white collar crimes
they have greater self confidence and assertiveness due to greater opportunities
48
criticisms of the liberation thesis
female crime rate began rising long before the women’s liberation movement
most female criminals are working class who are least likely to be influenced by the liberation movement
49
gender and victimisation
70% of homicide victims are men
fewer women than men are victims of violence
women are more likely to be victimised by an acquaintance
more women than men are victims of intimate violence
50
masculinity and crime - Messerschmidt
masculinity is a social construct - men have to constantly work at constructing and presenting it to others
some men have subordinated masculinities
crime and deviance are resources that different men may use for accomplishing masculinity
51
criticisms of Messerschmidt
is masculinity an explanation of male crime or just a description of male offenders?
doesn’t explain why not all men use crime to accomplish masculinity
52
victim surveys - ethnicity
rely on memory
white victims may ‘over identify’ blacks
only cover personal crimes
exclude white collar and corporate criminals
53
policing & stop and search - ethnicity
policing - allegations of oppressive policing
stop and search - members of minority ethnic groups are more likely to be stopped and searched
institutional racism within the Met Police
many officers hold negative stereotypes about ethnic minorities
54
arrests and prosecution - ethnicity
once arrested, blacks and Asians were less likely to receive a caution
black and Asian defendants are less likely to be found guilty
blacks are four times more likely to be in prison than whites
55
left-realism - ethnicity
racism has led to the marginalisation and economic exclusion of ethnic minorities
media’s emphasis on consumerism promotes a sense of relative deprivation
goals that minority groups cannot reach by legitimate means
56
Gilroy - the myth of black criminality
created by racist stereotypes
as a result of the police and criminal justice system acting on these stereotypes ethnic minorities come to be criminalised
57
Hall et al - myth of the black mugger
served as a scapegoat to distract attention from the true cause of problems such as unemployment - capitalist crisis
58
ethnicity and victimisation
racist incidents
racially or religiously aggravated offences
59
over representation in news reporting
sexual, violent, white collar, unusual crimes
older, middle class, female, white victims
police success, crime as separate events
60
Schlesinger & Tumber - changes in the media
in the 60s, the focus had been on murders and petty crime, but in the 90s it was of less interest
reporting had also widened to drugs, child abuse, terrorism etc
61
Cohen & Young - news is manufactured
‘news values’ - the criteria by which journalists and editors decide whether a story is newsworthy enough
e.g. immediacy, dramatisation, personalisation, risk, violence etc
62
the media as a cause of crime
imitation, arousal, desensitisation, glamourising offending etc
20s & 30s - cinema was blamed
50s - horror comics were held responsible
80s - video nasties
63
fear of crime - media
Gerbner et al found that heavy users of television had higher levels of fear of crime
64
cultural criminology
the media turn crime itself into the commodity that people desire
Hayward & Young - we are immersed in a ‘media scape’ where there is a blurring between the image and reality of crime
65
moral panics
the media identify a group as a folk devil or threat to societal values and present them in a negative, stereotypical fashion
this leads to a 'crackdown' on the group which can lead to a self fulfilling prophecy
66
mods and rockers
mods wore smart dress and rode scooters, rockers wore leather and rode motorbikes
the disorder was relatively minor but the media overreacted and assumed more conflict and violence would result
67
cyber-crime
cyber trespass - crossing boundaries into others' property
cyber deception and theft - 'phishing', identity theft etc
cyber pornography
cyber violence - psychological harm or inciting physical harm
global cyber crime
68
situational crime prevention - Clarke
directed at specific crimes
involve managing or altering the immediate environment
aim at increasing effort and risks of committing crime and reducing rewards
69
displacement
Chaiken et al - a crackdown on subway robberies in NYC merely displaced them to the streets above
70
evaluation of situational crime prevention
with most measures there is likely to be some displacement
assumes criminals make rational calculations
ignores the root causes of crime
71
suicide by gassing - no displacement
in the 60s, half of all suicides were a result of gassing, but as the toxic gas was replaced the overall suicide rate declined, there was no displacement
72
broken windows - Wilson & Kelling
all the various signs of disorder and lack of concern for others in neighbourhoods
73
zero tolerance policing - Wilson & Kelling
disorder and absence of control leads to crime
environmental improvement strategy and a zero tolerance policing strategy
74
evidence for zero tolerance policing - 'clean car programme'
instituted on the subway, where cars where taken out of service immediately if they had any graffiti on them, only returning once clean
75
criticisms of zero tolerance policing
the NYPD benefitted from 7000 extra officers
there was a general decline in crime at the time
many new jobs were being created
attempted homicides remained high but people were surviving due to improved healthcare
76
social and community crime prevention
place emphasis on the potential offender and their social context
causes of crime are often rooted in social conditions such as poverty, unemployment etc
77
the Perry pre-school project
aimed at disadvantaged black children
experimental group of 3-4 year olds were offered a two-year intellectual enrichment programme
a longitudinal study followed their subsequent progress and by age 40 they had significantly fewer lifetime arrests and were in employment
78
birth of the prison - Foucalt
sovereign power was typical of the period before the 19th century - monarch had power over people and their bodies
disciplinary power became dominant from the 19th century - governing not just the body but the mind and the soul
79
the panopticon - Foucalt
each prisoner in his own cell is visible to the guards from a central watchtower, but the guards are not visible to the prisoners
the prisoners do not know they are being watched but they know they might be being watched so they have to behave at all times
80
the dispersal of discipline - Foucalt
the prison is just one of a range of institutions that increasingly began to subject individuals to disciplinary power to induce conformity
disciplinary power has now dispersed throughout society, penetrating every social institution to reach every individual
81
criticisms of Foucalt
exaggerates the extent of control
panopticon may not be effective in preventing crime e.g. CCTV
feminists argue that CCTV is an extension of the male gaze
82
synoptic surveillance
powerful groups fear the media's surveillance of them may uncover damaging information
the public monitor each other
everybody watches everybody - synopticon
83
risk management - Feeley and Simon
e.g. airport security screening checks are based on known offender 'risk factors'
seeks to predict and prevent future offending
84
two types of justice
retributive justice - punishment is severe and cruel and its motivation is purely expressive
restitutive justice - crime damages interdependence so it is necessary to repair the damage through compensation
85
prison statistics
there are now 1.5 million state and federal prisoners and 700,000 in local jails
5 million people are under the supervision of the criminal justice system
86
transcarceration
individuals become locked in a cycle of control
e.g. someone might be brought up in care, then sent to a young offenders' institution, then adult prison
87
positivist victimology - Miers
aims to identify the factors that produce patterns in victimisation
focuses on interpersonal crimes of violence
aims to identify victims who have contributed to their own victimisation
88
evaluation of positivist victimology
it is a matter of chance which party becomes the victim
ignores wider structural factors
easily tips over into victim blaming
ignores situations where victims are unaware of their victimisation
89
critical victimology - Tombs and Whyte
structural factors - patriarchy and poverty
the state's power to apply or deny the label of victim - applies it to some but withholds it from others
'safety crimes' are often explained away as the fault of 'accident prone' workers
90
patterns of victimisation
class - the poorest groups are most likely to be victimised
age - younger people are more at risk of victimisation
ethnicity - minority ethnic groups are at greater risk of being victims
gender - males are at greater risk than females of being victims of violent attacks, women are more at risk of being victims of sexual attacks
repeat victimisation
91
the impact of victimisation
disrupted sleep, feelings of helplessness, security consciousness
may also create 'indirect' victims such as friends, relatives and witnesses
hate crimes may create 'waves of crime'
fear of victimisation
92
secondary victimisation
individuals may suffer further victimisation at the hands of the criminal justice system e.g. rape victims are often poorly treated
93
the global criminal economy - Held et al
new opportunities for crime, new means of committing crime, and new offences
trafficking, smuggling of illegal immigrants, green crimes etc
94
global risk consciousness
globalisation creates new insecurities
the media create moral panics about the supposed 'threat' e.g. negative coverage about immigrants can lead to hate crimes
intensification of social control at the national level - tougher border control, CCTV, control on various 'wars' (terror, drugs, crime)
95
globalisation and capitalism - Taylor
allowed transnational corporations to switch manufacturing to low wage countries, producing unemployment
marketisation allows people to see themselves as individual
96
'glocal' organisation
patterns of crime are shifting - small individual operators are replacing large organised crime groups - still locally based but with global connections
97
mcmafia
organised crime networks that work like a franchise due to globalisation
98
'global risk society' and the environment - Beck
in today's late modern society we can provide adequate resources to all
the massive increase in productivity and technology have created new 'manufactured risks', many of which involve harm to the environment and its consequences
99
evaluation of green criminology
recognises the growing importance of environmental issues and the need to address the harms and risks however it is hard to define boundaries and make moral or political statements about which actions ought to be right or wrong
100
the Bhopal disaster - global risk society
the US owned pesticide plant in Bhopal started leaking cyanide and had fallen into disrepair
all safety systems failed to operate
half a million were exposed and over 20,000 died whilst others continued to suffer the effects
green criminology takes a wider view noting the advantages for the company in locating their plant in a country with a weak health and safety and environmental protection legislation
101
two views of harm
anthropocentric = human-centred
ecocentric = sees humans and their environment as interdependent
102
genocide in Rwanda - state crime
Belgians used the minority Tutsi to mediate their rule over the Hutu majority, creating separation
elections brought the majority Hutus to power and political crisis led to civil war
800,000 Tutsis were slaughtered and many Hutu civilians were forced to join the killing or be killed themselves
103
state-corporate crime
the challenger space shuttle disaster - risky, negligent and cost-cutting decisions by NASA led to an explosion which killed seven astronauts
the deepwater horizon oil rig disaster - the rig exploded and sank, killing eleven workers and causing the largest accidental oil spill in history
104
war crimes
illegal wars - US invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq
crimes committed during wars or its aftermath
torture of prisoners
105
social harms and zemiology
creates a single standard which can be applied to different states to identify which ones are most harmful to human or environmental wellbeing
106
international law
adv = does not depend on the sociologist’s own personal definitions, it uses globally agreed definitions
dis = law is a social construction involving the use of power
107
human rights
natural rights = people have simply by existing
civil rights = right to vote, to privacy etc
108
the authoritarian personality - Adorno et al
willingness to obey the orders of superiors without question e.g. during the Second World War, Germany had authoritarian personality types due to the disciplinarian socialisation patterns at the time
109
crimes of obedience
many people are willing to obey authority even when this involves harming others
authorisation - acts are approved by authority
routinisation - pressure to turn the act into a routine
dehumanisation - when the enemy is portrayed as sub-human, normal principles of morality do not apply
110
modernity - Bauman
key features of society which made the Holocaust possible:
division of labour - each person was responsible for one small task
bureaucratisation - normalised the killing by making it repetitive
instrumental rationality - methods are used to achieve the goal regardless of what this is
science and technology - railways transporting prisoners, gas used for killing
111
the culture of denial - Alvarez & Cohen
states now have to make a greater effort to conceal or justify their human rights crimes
112
three stage ‘spiral of state denial’
‘It didn’t happen’
‘It is something else’
‘It’s justified to fight the war on terror’
113
techniques of neutralisation
denial of victim
denial of injury
denial of responsibility
condemning the condemners
appeal to higher loyalty
Sociology
flashcards
Decks in class (6)
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