crime reduction

Question 1

surveillance

Answer 1

surveillance is an increasingly common way of excising control over individuals

collating data on the actions of individuals is commonplace in the digital age

surveillance can be both internal anf external with many modifying their behaviour as a result of believing they are being watched

Question 2

Michel Foucault

Answer 2

‘discipline and punish’

physical punishment has been replaced by psychological punishment

process of civilisation has led to reduction in physical punishment

according to foucault, this is because more effective forms of punishment have been developed

Question 3

suveillance of elites

Answer 3

Mathiesen 1997 suggested that with the birth of the digital age and mass media, this led to a ‘bottom-up’ form of surveillance.

the many were able to monitor the behaviour of the few

politicians come under particular scrutiny - e.g. expenses scandal

Question 4

the panopticon

Answer 4

foucault used the panopticon, a prison designed by Jeremy Bentham to illustrate his case

prisoners are observed from central guard tower, but are unaware of whether they are being watched by guards in tower

prisoners regulate own behaviour and monitor own behaviours, leading to self discipline

Question 5

the electronic panoptican

Answer 5

foucaults arguments have been applied to contemporary society through discussion of the electronic panoptican

increased usage of electronic and digital devices heightens the impacts of surveillance

cambridge analytica scandal revealed extent to which dara is collected and used to manipulate voting patterns of individuals

Question 6

synoptic surveillance

Answer 6

individuals have become agents of surviellance - use of smart phones and mounted cameras to record crime.

this is seen as a synopticon, a form of synoptic surveillance where individuals monitor each others behaviour

Question 7

integrated surveillance

Answer 7

surveillance systems communicate with one another to increase data and capture movements of individuals.

leads to internalised forms of surveillance, where people adjust their behaviour as they know they are being monitored

Question 8

actuarial justice

Answer 8

the use of data to predict behaviours based upon other activities

Lyon 2012 - people are categorised according to levels of risk they present

state monitors individuals it believes to have potential for committing crime

Question 9

evaluation of surveillance.

Answer 9

• actuarial justice is oftn based upon racist stereotyping of individuals
• impacts of labelling individuals as criminal
• assumes peoples behvaiour is subject to rationsl thought processes
• cctv often captures crime, but does not act as a deterrent
• mass media can manipulate images and bury news that is harmful to status quo

Question 10

social and community crime prevention

Answer 10

• associated with the left realist approach to crime and deviance
• approach often linked with new labour from 1997-2010 that looked to tackle the causes of crime
• focus on tackling the inequalities in society that lead to crime occuring

Question 11

causes of crime

Answer 11

left realists saw three main reasons for crime:

• formation of subcultures; lack of status and disintegration of communities leads to formation of subcultures
• relative deprivation ; poverty and unemployment are key factors in the levels of crime
• marginalisation; people feeling socially and economically excluded from opportunities in society.

Question 12

social and communitiy prevention

Answer 12

focus of social and community prevention is based upon two key strategies

• intervention - preventing crime through early intervention, e.g. inter agency working
• community - developing relationships within the local community with people and other agencies

Question 13

examples of social and community prevention

Answer 13

• perry pre school project in michigan - longitudinal study examined the impacts of pre-school education on african american children
• experimental group had regular interventions from social workers and had less than 50% of arrests compared to control group by age 27
• pre school programmes to help raise attainment in education - e.g. head start in USA and Sure Start in UK
• parenting classes - including troubled families in the UK
• development of youth and community facilities - e.g. millennium centres in the UK

Question 14

evaluation of social and community prevention

Answer 14

• often ignored the underlying impacts of inequality on society but rather attempted to plug the gaps
• victim blaming of parents and children assuming parenting styles were inadequate
• relationships with police and agencies strained due to perceptions of police behvaiour e.g. McPherson Report

Question 15

role of the prisons

Answer 15

prison is one of the more common forms of punishment for criminal behvaiour in the UK

prison population of UK less than 80’000 in June 2020 according to ONS

Sharp decline in last 12 months due to covid restrictions - around 76,000 males 3,000

Question 16

purpose of the prison

Answer 16

imprisonment serves a range of functions for society.

• acts as a detterent to future criminality
• incapabilities of the offender and keeps public safe from offenders
• provides rehabilitation opportunities for the offender to rejoin society
• punishes offenders for crimes committed

Question 17

roles of prisons

Answer 17

differing perspectives on the role of punishment and prisons

• functionalist
• marxist
• foucault
• garland

Question 18

durkheim on prison

Answer 18

two forms of punishment in society:

• retributive punishment: punishments as a form of vengeance for crimes committed
  e.g. death penalty
• restitutive punishment: allowing the criminals to make amends for their crimes and becoming a functional member of society e.g. rehabilitation

Question 19

marxism on prison

Answer 19

ALTHUSSER and the Repressive state apparatus argued the prison is a form of formal control for those who do not control

punishment is often in the interests of the ruling class with labour in prisons performed on behalf of private companies, where labour is provided at far cheaper costs by using prisoners

Question 20

Foucault ideas on prison

Answer 20

he also examines the movement from physical to psychological punishment of individuals

using the panoptican as an example - surveillance in prison became a form of self discipline where individuals come to regulate their own behaviours because they were in fear that they were being watched

this idea has extended to a wider surveillance society, as it can be seen through the use of electronics and the internet

Question 21

Garland and prison

Answer 21

garland suggests that late - modern society has changed the role of the state in punishment

he saw that theres three different responses:
- Adaptive response - this is identifying risk groups and aiming to intervene at early stage.
- expressive strategy - changing the perception of crime, particularly in the media, as less threatening, E.G street crime in the news and manipulation of crime data making individuals feel safer in society
- sovereign state startegy - this includes mass incarceration. E.G. seen in the USA with the expansion of the prison service in 1990s, under the clinton administration, leading to growth in prison population

Question 22

evaluations of prison as form of punishment

Answer 22

• high levels of recidivism - reoffending rate was 61% of those serving less than 12 months in Dec 2018
• rate of imprisonment has increased in the UK by over 40,000 between 1993 and 2016
• Lammy report found 25% of prisoners were from ethnic minority backgrounds, mirroring statistics from CJS
• other methods proved more reliable in chnaging reoffending behaviours - e.g. restorative justice (Braithewaites)

Question 23

Environemental crime prevention

Answer 23

• environmental crime prevention is influenced by the ideas of Wilson and Kelling’s broken windows theory

broken windows theory suggested the physical signs of degradation in an area, such as broken windows, increase the likelihood of that area having a higher rate of crime

it falls broadly onto the right realist perspectie of crime and deviance, focusing on eliminating the physical signs of disorder in an area, based upon the assumption that this will give residents pride in the local neighbourhood and be less likely to committ crime in thar area

Question 24

broken windows theory

Answer 24

suggests that visible signs of disorder and neglect influenced/encouraged levels of crime

areas of high deprivation that had been often underfunded and ignored by local government had higher rates of crime

the aim was to act rapidly to fix these signs of neglect and disorder, and catch those who were responsible which ushered in zero tolerance policing policies

Question 25

zero tolerance policing policies | and NYC example

Answer 25

zero tolerance policing looks to tackle some of the signs in an area of disorder by shutting down bars/nightclubs with bad reputations of disorder etc to give an impression of order in an area. removing signs of deprivation in an area made people feel safer - as seen in NEW YORK in the 1990s, under the mayorship of Rudy Giuliani - to increase the size of the police force in the city and took a proactive role in cleaning up the streets; targeting street traders, beggars and drug dealing in the city to make it safer for visitors and residents in NY this allowed for a second phase of environmental crime prevention = environemtnal improvement

Question 26

what is environmental improvement

Answer 26

environmental improvement is tackling the signs of disorder - such as removing grafitti, repairing broken windows, rebuilding communities this has led to accusations of gentrification; moving less desireable out of an area, to allow for more middle class and young professional markets to move into areas, which initially have lower rent, but as the area becomes more desirable, it becomes increasingly unaffordable for the original residents to live in. this was commonplace in areas such as new york and london throughout the 20th and 21st century

Question 27

environmental crime research support | Keizer et al

Answer 27

Keizer et al 2008- devised a series of field experiments to see if people would commit offences in areas of varying appearance/ different levels of disorder. he found that in areas of physical signs of disorder, people were more likely to display deviant behaviours FURTHERMORE Kellings acted as an advisor to the NewYork mayors office, as they pursued their policies of environmental crime prevention - an example of sociological thinking and informing social policy

Question 28

evaluation of environmental crime prevention evidence

Answer 28

- new york crime rates were dropping and additional police were utilised to enforce policy ; NYPD was expanded during this period so it can be argued this led to a decline in crime rate rather than the implementation of environmental crime prevention techniques - change in the us economy lifted job prospects and made city more affluent. - environmetnal crime prevention often used in conjunction with situational and community based efforts - crime often displaced to other areas

Question 29

what is social policy

Answer 29

Government strategies, laws and programmes designed to address social problems – including crime. Social policy is never neutral; it always reflects underlying values and assumptions.

Question 30

why left vs right

Answer 30

Political ideology shapes what governments believe CAUSES crime and therefore what they believe will SOLVE it. The same crime statistics can lead to completely different policy responses.

Question 31

both sides wanting less crime

Answer 31

A crucial point: left-wing AND right-wing governments both claim to want to reduce crime. The difference lies in their diagnosis of the problem and their prescribed solution.

Question 32

left wing approaches

Answer 32

* Crime is caused by STRUCTURAL factors: poverty, inequality, lack of opportunity * Solution: Reform society to address root causes * Favour social and community crime prevention * Support rehabilitation and restorative justice * Key thinkers: Taylor, Walton & Young; Jock Young (left realism)

Question 33

right wing approaches

Answer 33

* Crime is caused by INDIVIDUAL factors: rational choices, weak deterrents, lack of control * Solution: Tougher enforcement and punishment * Favour situational and environmental crime prevention * Support retributive and punitive approaches * Key thinkers: Wilson & Herrnstein; Murray; James Q. Wilson

Question 34

taylor, walton and young 1973

Answer 34

The New Criminology. Argued crime is a meaningful response to structural inequality. Demanded radical social change, not more policing. LEFT WING

Question 35

Jock Young 1997

Answer 35

Left Realism. Crime is real and damaging to working-class communities. Focus on victim experience, relative deprivation and marginalisation.

Question 36

James Q.wilson 1975

Answer 36

Thinking About Crime. Rejected structural explanations; emphasised deterrence, incapacitation and rational choice. RIGHT WING

Question 37

Charles Murray 1984

Answer 37

Losing Ground. Argued welfare dependency created an underclass with weak moral norms, leading to higher crime rates. RIGHT WING