1
Q
Instance Class Types in RDS
A
Standard, Memory-optimized, Burstable performance
2
Q
Storage Type
A
General Purpose, Provisioned IOPS
3
Q
Parameter groups important points
A
> Define configuration values specific to the select DB engine
Default parameter group cannot be edited
To make config changes, you must create a new parameter group
New parameter group inherits settings from the default parameter group
Can be applied to any DB instances within the AWS region
4
Q
Restoring from a snapshot points
A
- By default, restored cluster gets applied with
- New security group
- Default parameter group
- Option group that was associated with the snapshot
- While restoring from a snapshot, be sure to
- Choose the correct security group to
ensure connectivity for the restored DB - Choose correct parameter group for the
restored DB - Recommended to retain parameter group
of the snapshot to help restore with the
correct parameter group
- Choose the correct security group to
5
Q
PITR with RDS
A
- Point-In-Time Recovery
- Can only restore to a new instance
- The backup retention period controls the
PITR window - Can restore to any point in time during your
backup retention period - RDS uploads DB transaction logs to S3 every
5 minutes (affects latest restorable time) - You can move/restore a DB instance from
outside VPC to inside VPC with PITR (but not
other way round)
6
Q
Exporting DB Snapshot Data to S3
A
- All types of backups can be exported (automatic/manual
or those created with AWS Backup service) - How to export?
- Setup an S3 bucket with appropriate IAM
permissions and create a KMS key for SSE - Export the snapshot using console (Actions à Export to Amazon S3) or using start-export-task CLI command
- Setup an S3 bucket with appropriate IAM
- Export runs in the background
- Doesn’t affect the DB performance
- Data exported in Apache Parquet format (=compressed and consistent)
- Allows you to analyze the DB data using Athena or Redshift Spectrum
7
Q
Multi-AZ Deployments in RDS
A
- For high availability, data durability and fault-tolerance (not used for scaling)
- Offers SYNC replication to standby instance in another AZ over low latency links
- Performs automatic failover to standby instance in another AZ in case of planned or unplanned outage
- Uses DNS routing to point to the new master (no need to update connection strings)
- Failover times (RTO) are typically 60-120 seconds (minimal downtime)
- Backups are taken from standby instead of primary to ensure performance level
during backup activity - Recommended for production use cases
- To force a failover or simulate AZ-failure, reboot the master instance and choose Reboot with failover
8
Q
RDS Read Replicas
A
- Read-only copies of master (primary) DB instance
- Up to 5 Read Replicas
- Within AZ, Cross AZ or Cross Region
- Replication is ASYNC, so reads are eventually
consistent - Applications must update the connection string to leverage read replicas
9
Q
RDS Read Replicas 2
A
- Boost DB performance
and durability - Useful for scaling of read- heavy workloads
- Can be promoted to primary (complements
Multi-AZ) - To create a replica, you must enable automatic backups with at least one
day retention period - Replica can be Multi-AZ (= a replica with its own standby instance)
10
Q
RDS Read Replicas as Multi-AZ
A
- Supported for MySQL / MariaDB / PostgreSQL / Oracle
- Works as a DR target. When promoted to primary, it works as Multi-AZ
- There’s added network cost when data goes from one AZ to another
11
Q
RDS Read Replicas – Use Case
A
- You have a production database that is
taking on normal load - You want to run a reporting application
to run some analytics - You create a Read Replica to run the new
workload there - The production application is unaffected
- Read replicas are used for SELECT (=read) only kind of statements (not INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE)
12
Q
Promoting a Read Replica to a Standalone DB
Instance
A
- Promoted instance is rebooted and becomes an independent DB instance
(separate from its source) - Will no longer work as a replica. Does not affect other replicas of the original DB
instance - You cannot promote a replica to a standalone instance while a backup is running
13
Q
Promoting a Read Replica to a Standalone DB
Instance – Use cases
A
- Use as a DR strategy
- Avoid performance penalty of DDL operations (like rebuilding indexes)
- Perform DDL ops on a read replica and promote it to a standalone instance. Then
point your app to this new instance. - Sharding (splitting a large DB
into multiple smaller DBs)
14
Q
Enabling writes on a read replica
A
- For MySQL / MariaDB read replica, set
the parameter read_only = 0 for the read replica to make it writable - You can then perform DDL operations on the read replica as needed without affecting the source DB
- Actions taken on the read replica don’t
affect the performance of the source DB instance - You can then promote the replica to a standalone DB
15
Q
RDS Read Replica capabilities
A
- Can create multiple read replicas in quick succession
- Can use DB snapshot to perform PITR of a Read Replica
- Can create a replica from an existing replica
- reduces replication load from the master DB instance
- second-tier replica can have higher replication lag
16
Q
Cross-Region Read Replicas in RDS
A
- Supported for MariaDB, MySQL, Oracle, and PostgreSQL
- Not supported for SQL Server
- Advantages
- Enhanced DR capability
- Scale read operations closer to the
end-users - Limitations
- Higher replica lag times
- AWS does not guarantee more than
five cross-region read replica instances
17
Q
RDS replicas with an external database
A
- Replication b/w an external DB and an
RDS replica - Supported for MySQL / MariaDB engines
- Two ways
- Binlog replication
- GTID based Replication
18
Q
RDS Disaster Recovery Strategies
A
- To ensure business continuity despite
unexpected failures/events - Multi-AZ is not enough (it can’t protect from
logical DB corruption, malicious attacks etc.) - Key metrics for DR plan – RTO and RPO
- RDS PITR offers RPO of 5 minutes (typically)
- RTO (Recovery time objective)
- How long it takes you to recover after a disaster
- Expressed in hours
- RPO (Recovery point objective)
- How much data you could lose due to a disaster
- Expressed in hours (e.g. RPO of 1 hour means you could lose an hour worth of data)
19
Q
Comparing RDS DR Strategies Automated backups
A
RTO - Good
RPO - Better
Cost - Low
Scope - Single region
20
Q
Comparing RDS DR Strategies Manual snapshots
A
RTO - Better
RPO - Good
Cost - Medium
Scope - Cross-Region
21
Q
Comparing RDS DR Strategies Read replicas
A
RTO - Best
RPO - Best
Cost - High
Scope - Cross-Region
22
Q
RDS Disaster Recovery Strategies
A
- To ensure business continuity despite
unexpected failures/events - Multi-AZ is not enough (it can’t protect from
logical DB corruption, malicious attacks etc.) - Key metrics for DR plan – RTO and RPO
- RDS PITR offers RPO of 5 minutes (typically)
- RTO (Recovery time objective)
- How long it takes you to recover after a disaster
- Expressed in hours
- RPO (Recovery point objective)
- How much data you could lose due to a disaster
- Expressed in hours (e.g. RPO of 1 hour means you could
lose an hour worth of data)
23
Q
Troubleshooting high replica lag
A
- Asynchronous logical replication typically results in replica lag
- You can monitor ReplicaLag metrics in
CloudWatch - ReplicaLag metric reports Seconds_Behind_Master values
- Replication delays can happen due to:
- Long-running queries on the primary instance (slow query log can help)
- Insufficient instance class size or storage
- Parallel queries executed on the primary instance
24
Q
Troubleshooting replication errors - Recommendations:
A
- Size the replica to match the source DB (storage size and DB instance class)
- Use compatible DB parameter group settings for source DB and replica
- Ex. max_allowed_packet for read replica must same as that of the source DB
instance - Monitor the Replication State field of the replica instance
- If Replication State = Error, then see error details in the Replication Error field
- Use RDS event notifications to get alerts on such replica issues
25
Troubleshooting replication errors (contd.)
* Writing to tables on a read replica
* Set read_only=0 to make read replica writable
* Use only for maintenance tasks (like creating indexes only on replica)
* If you write to tables on read replica, it might make it incompatible with source DB and break the replication
* So set read_only=1 immediately after completing maintenance tasks
* Replication is only supported with transactional storage engines like InnoDB. Using
engines like MyISAM will cause replication errors
* Using unsafe nondeterministic queries such as SYSDATE() can break replication
* You can either skip replication errors (if its not a major one) or delete and recreate
the replica
26
Troubleshooting MySQL read replica issues
* Errors or data inconsistencies b/w source instance and replica
* Can happen due to binlog events or InnoDB redo logs aren’t flushed during a
replica or source instance failure
* Must manually delete and recreate the replica
* Preventive recommendations:
* sync_binlog=1
* innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit=1
* innodb_support_xa=1
* These settings might reduce performance (so test before moving to production)
27
Performance hit on new read replicas
* RDS snapshots are EBS snapshots stored in S3
* When you spin up a new replica, its EBS volume loads lazily in the background
* This results in first-touch penalty (when you query any data, it takes longer to retrieve it for the first time)
* Suggestions:
* If DB is small, run “SELECT * FROM ” query on each table on the replica
* Initiate a full table scan with VACUUM ANALYZE (in PostgreSQL)
* Another reason could be an empty buffer pool (cache for table and index data)
