1
Q
Types of plant tissue
A
- Vascular tissue2. Ground tissue3. Dermal tissue
2
Q
The plant body has a hierarchy of ___, ___, and ___.
A
Organs, tissues, cells
3
Q
Components of the plant cell
A
- Plasma membrane2. Cell wall - Primary cell wall - Secondary cell wall with lignin3. Plasmodesma(ta) - Channels that allow transport of food/hormones from cell to cell.
4
Q
The three basic plant organs
A
- Leaves2. Stems3. Roots
5
Q
Two plant organ systems
A
- Shoot system - Above ground2. Root system - Below ground
6
Q
Plant cells store water in the ___ ___.
A
Central vacuole
7
Q
Characteristic of secondary cell wall
A
Not permeable by water, causing cell death following maturation.
8
Q
Root
A
- Anchors the vascular plant- Absorbs minerals and water- Often stores organic nutrients- May become photosynthetic + E.g., orchids
9
Q
Root hairs
A
- Found in most plants- Occur at root tips where water/mineral absorption takes place- Increase surface area of root- Cannot absorb water if broken until they grow back
10
Q
Modified roots
A
- Prop roots - Develop above ground to create new shoots2. Storage roots - Store food and water3. Strangling aerial4. Buttress roots - Very large above ground5. Pneumatophores - Stick out of water to breathe
11
Q
Two root systems
A
- Fibrous roots - Monocotyledons2. Taproots - Dicotyledons
12
Q
Stem
A
- Positions and supports leaf- May become modified to perform other functions
13
Q
Anatomy of the stem
A
- Apical/terminal bud - Located near the shoot tip and causes elongation of a young shoot.2. Axillary/lateral bud - Located at each node. - Meristems - Structure with the potential to form a lateral shoot, or branch.
14
Q
Apical dominance
A
- Apical shoots inhibit growth of lateral buds.- Lateral shoots will grow if apical bud is removed.
15
Q
Node
A
Place where leaf meets stem
16
Q
Internode
A
Space between nodes
17
Q
Meristem
A
Undifferentiated plant cell
18
Q
Modified shoot examples
A
Runner, strawberry, rhizomes, iris, tubers, potato, bulb, onion
19
Q
If left out too long, potatoes will sprout ___ ___.
A
Lateral buds
20
Q
Corm
A
Contain a solid, underground stem. - E.g., garlic
21
Q
Leaf
A
- Main photosynthetic organ of most vascular plants.- Cuticle and stomata
22
Q
Stomata opening formed by ___ cells.
A
Gaurd
23
Q
Trichomes are also known as ___ ___.
A
Leaf hairs
24
Q
Petiole
A
Joins the leaf to a node on the stem.
25
Most monocots have ___ veins.
Parallel
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Most dicots have ___ veins.
Branching
27
Leaf types
- Simple- Compound + Pinnate + Bipinnate
28
Simple leaf
One continuous blade
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Pinnate leaf
Blade is broken down into leaflets
30
Modified leaves
1. Tendrils2. Spines3. Storage4. Bracts5. Reproductive
31
Modified leaves
1. Tendrils2. Spines3. Storage4. Bracts5. Reproductive
32
Three tissue of plant organs
1. Dermal tissue2. Vascular tissue3. Ground tissue
33
Dermal tissue system
- Consists of epidermis (in primary growth)- Covered in cuticle
34
Vascular tissue system
Carries out long distance transport of material between roots and shoots. - Consists of xylem tissue and phloem tissue.
35
Xylem tissue
Transports water and dissolved minerals upward from roots to shoots.- Dead at maturity.- Leave behind (yellow/red) lignin at death.- Two types of xylem cells + Tracheids + Vessel elements
36
Tracheids
- Long, narrow, tapered cells with pits on the cell walls.
37
Vessel elements
Short, wide cells with partially perforated walls.- Spiral-shaped
38
Phloem tissue
Transports organic nutrients (sugars) and hormones from where they are made to where they are needed.- Alive at maturity.- Sugars and hormones make up sap.Two types:- Sieve-tube members- Companion cells
39
Sieve-tube member
- No nucleus- Only have cytoplasm- Cannot undergo mitosis- Contain sieve plates at their ends- Run next to companion cells
40
Companion cell
Control metabolism in order to keep sieve-tube members alive.- Undergo mitotis- 1:1 ratio to sieve tube members- Run next to sieve tube members- Typically dyed blue
41
Phloem and xylem run ___ to one another.
Parallel
42
Ground tissue
Includes various cells that can be used for storage, photosynthesis, support, etc.- Three types + Parenchyma (most common) + Collenchyma + Sclerenchyma
43
Parenchyma cells
- Live at maturity with flexible primary cell wall- Metabolically active- Non-specialized and can divide to become other cells, but typically form xylem or phloem.- Common in vascular and ground tissue- Functions + Photosynthesis - Contain chloroplasts + Storage
44
Collenchyma cells
- Live at maturity with unevenly thickened cell wall- Common in ground tissues of stems and petioles- Also associated with phloem- Function + Flexible support which allows for plant growth
45
Sclerenchyma cells
- Dead at maturity with thickened cell wall containing lignin- Common in ground and vascular tissues- Cell types + Sclerids + Fibers - Long, tapered, non-digestible cells- Function + Support
46
Sclerids
Provide addition structure and support. - Variable shape
47
Fibers
Long, tapered cells that are non-digestible.
48
Tissue organization of leaves
- Epidermal barrier + Interrupted by stomata which allow for CO2 exchange.- Ground tissue + Sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis.- Vascular tissue + Continuous with vascular tissue of the stem.
49
Leaf structure (all leaves contain...)
- Upper and lower epidermis + Both contain cuticle with guard cells and stomata. + Epidermis does not contain chloroplasts and so it needs to be fed.- Mesophyll (composed of Parenchyma cells) + Monocots have one layer + Dicots contain palisade and spongy parenchyma- Vein
50
Vein
Vascular bundle containing xylem and phloem.
51
Meristems
Contain embryonic tissues that continuously generate cells for new organs. Work like stem cells.Types of meristems:- Shoot apical meristem + Elongate tips of shoots by primary growth.- Root apical meristem + Elongate tips of roots by primary growth.- Auxillary buds
52
Embryonic tissues leading to primary growth
- Protoderm- Ground tissue- Procambium
53
Protoderm
Gives rise to dermal tissue
54
Ground tissue
Gives rise to ground tissue
55
Procambium
Gives rise to vascular tissue
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Primary growth
Growth in length of apical meristems at tips of roots and shoots.- Flexible- Eventually turns into secondary growth- Characteristic of all plants + Herbs only posses primary growth
57
Shoot apical meristems
Mass of dividing cells at the tip of the terminal bud.- Dome-shaped- Gives rise to the repetition of internodes and leaf-bearing nodes
58
Stem structure in primary growth
- Epidermis + One layer of cells and rarely more.- Cortex + Support tissues: - Collenchyma (live cells) - Sclerenchyma with fibers and sclerids (dead cells) - Parenchyma (live cells) + "Filler"- Vascular bundles + Xylem + Phloem + Procambium- Pith
59
Procambium
Undifferentiated cells that form xylem and phloem.
60
Pith
Composed of parenchyma cells - Compose the center of the stem in monocots and dicots. - Compose the center of the root in monocots only.
61
In gymnosperms and dicots, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ___ shape.
Ring- These rings separate the pith from the cortex.
62
Characteristics of monocot stems
- Vascular bundles scattered throughout the ground tissue.- Closed vascular bundle- No vascular cambium- No secondary growth + Due to vascular bundles being surrounded by sclerenchyma cells.
63
Root cap
Covers the root tip to protect the root apical meristem during primary growth. - Produce mucus to lubricate the root.
64
Root structure in primary growth
- Epidermis with root hairs- Cortex- Endodermis with Casparian strips- Stele + Vascular tissue- Movement of water and nutrients + Apoplastic pathway + Symplastic pathway
65
Cortex
Space between epidermis and endodermis composed of ground tissue.
66
Two types of plant epidermis
- Upper- Lower + Typically faces away from the sun
67
Annuals
Grow for one year and then die.
68
Biannuals
Grow for two years and then die.
69
Procambium
Gives rise to vascular tissue (primary) - Everything below is phloem - Everything above is xylem
70
Dicot roots have xylem in the shape of a ___.
Cross
71
Stele (a.k.a. vascular cylinder) composition
Center portion of the root.From outside in:- Endodermis + One cell thick- Pericycle + One or more cells thick- Sieve tubes in phloem- Trachieds and vessels in xylem
72
Pericyle
The only structure that gives rise to lateral roots that emerge from within. - Lateral roots are those that shoot off from the main root.
73
Secondary growth
Adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants.- Occurs in dicots but not in monocots- Occurs in stems and roots but not in leaves- Typically occurs after one year
74
Secondary plant body composition
Tissues produced by:- Vascular cambium- Cork cambiumVascular cambium and cork cambium are lateral meristems.
75
Apical meristems add ___ while lateral meristems add ___.
Length, growth
76
Vascular cambium
- Cylinder of meristematic cells- Phloem to outside, xylem to inside- One cell thick- Develops from original vascular cambium within the vascular bundles and some parenchyma cells within the cortex.- Mostly in stems and roots of dicots
77
Zone of division
Where mitosis occurs within the root.
78
Zone of elongation
Where root grow to potential size.
79
Zone of differentiation maturation
Where cells differentiate within the root to carry out particular functions.- Root hairs only occur at this zone.
80
Endodermis is ___ at maturity.
Alive
81
Root hairs
Act as capillaries to move water via capillary action.- Epidermal cells
82
Symplastic route
Water and minerals are moved through the cytoplasm from cell to cell from the root hair to the xylem.
83
Apoplastic route
Water and minerals do not travel through the cytoplasm of the cells until they reach the later cells. The cytoplasm is made to act as a filter, but the apoplastic route bypasses this to increase speed.
84
Secondary growth production
- Vascular cambium undergoes mitosis to produce xylem to the inside and phloem to the outside. + Xylem and phloem cells do not undergo mitosis.- Primary phloem is crushed as the secondary phloem expands.- Primary xylem is pushed into the pith by the secondary xylem until the pith is completely gone.- Secondary xylem continues to grow inwards, causing the stem to expand in width.
85
Determining age in plants
Xylem cells shrink with lack of water. This causes a small ring of xylem to form during the winter.
86
Cork cambium
Cylinder of meristematic cells.- One cell thick- Mostly in stems and roots of dicots- Develops from parenchyma cells in cortex- Forms cork to the outside until it ruptures the epidermis
87
Cork
- Contains lignin and suberin + Impenetrable by water or gasses- Dead at maturity- Contains lenticels
88
Lenticels
Breakages within the periderm which allow gases into the deeper layers of the plant tissue.
89
Periderm
Cork and cork cambium
90
Bark
Periderm and living (secondary) phloem
91
Sapwood
Conducting xylem
92
Heartwood
Non-conducting xylem
93
Wood
Secondary xylem- Consists of sapwood and heartwood- Forms annual rings
94
Girdling
Removal of ring of bark around the trunk of a tree to kill it. - Due to the removal of living phloem and so the roots do not receive food.
95
Gravitropism (gravity-positive)
Grow in the direction of gravity (down) - Characteristic of roots
96
Gravity-negative
Grow opposite the direction of gravity (up) - Characteristic of shoots
97
Statoliths
Starches that attach to root cells. Must be at the bottom of the root, so the root grows to ensure this placement. This is the cause of gravitropism in roots.
98
Grafting
Method of cutting and binding separate plants in order to form one hybrid plant.
99
Gas exchange mostly by these methods
- Stomata- Lenticles- Spaces between cells
100
Methods of fluid movement within xylem
- Adhesion- Cohesion- Evaporation- OsmosisPossibly due to capillary action, root pressure, or transpiration pull. Unidirectional from roots to tips.
101
Cohesion
Attraction between water molecules due to slight positive/negative charge.
102
Adhesion
Attraction between water molecules and the xylem walls.
103
Transpiration pull
Ultimately due to water rising upwards as a result of evaporation.
104
Guard cell
Open and close stomata. - Two per stomata, one on each side. - Contain chloroplasts.
105
Method of fluid movement within phloem
Fluids move by mass flow and is multidirectional.- Source vs. sink
106
Source vs. sink
Source may be a leaf, root, flower, etc. Active transport causes solutes to move to sieve-tubes. Water moves in to increase pressure, and bulk flow pushes solutes towards sink. Pressure and solute concentration decrease between source and sink, but solutes eventually reach the sink, lowering their water potential. Water enters the sink after the solutes.
107
Epidermis
- Undifferentiated cells.- Includes guard cells and other specialized cells- Present in primary growth but eliminated by secondary growth.
108
Kingdom Animalia
"Metazoa"- Eukaryotic- Multicellular- Heterotrophic- Lack cell walls- Only kingdom possessing nervous and muscle tissue.- Major groups: + Invertebrates + Vertebrates
109
Advantages of multicellularity
- Large size- Mobility- Stable internal environment- Relative independence from environment
110
Origin of Animalia
Derived from the "colonial choanoflagelate," a prostist.- Monophletic
111
Evolution of Animalia
- Colonial protist is an aggregate of identical cells.- Forms to become a hollow sphere of unspecialized cell.- Cell specialization begins, and some cells become somatic cells while others become reproductive cells. + Somatic cells form the body.- Infolding + Hollow sphere of cells folds inward on one end.- Gastrula-like "protoanimal" is formed. + Cavity caused by infolding becomes the digestive cavity.
112
Eumetazoa possess ___ unlike Parazoa.
True tissues
113
Animal embryology
- Cleavage + Radial - Always indeterminate + Spiral - Always determinate- Cell fate + Indeterminate + Determinate
114
Cleavage
Series of rapid cell division by mitosis and cytokinesis.
115
Radial cleavage
- Occurs in deuterostomes- Indeterminate- 8 cell stage composed of symmetrical stacking of cells of the same size.
116
Spiral cleavage
- Occurs in protostomes- Determinate- 8 cell stage composed of smaller cells sitting on top of larger cells at an angle.
117
Developmental stages of Animalia
- Zygote undergoes cleavage until it becomes a morula.- Morula undergoes blastulation to become a blastula.- Blastula undergoes gastrulation to become a gastrula.
118
Morula
- Solid ball- Contains 64-100 cells- Undergoes blastulation
119
Blastulation
Cells of the morula move to the outside to increase the size of the ball, creating a blastula with a blastocoel.
120
Blastula
Hollow ball of cells.
121
Blastocoel
Hollow cavity within blastula.
122
Gastrulation
Process in which the invagination of the blastula creates the gastrula.
123
Gastrula
- Possess a blastopore- Possess germ layers + Ectoderm + Endoderm + Mesoderm - Blastocoel is contained between ectoderm and endoderm and thus reduced.
124
Blastopore
Opening to the primitive digestive system, eventually developing into a mouth or anus.
125
Coelom
Cavities that do not open to the exterior of the body.- Lining of coelom holds organs in place.- Surrounds heart, digestive, and respiratory structures in humans.Two types of formation:- Schizocoely- Enterocoely
126
Schizocoely
Solid masses of mesoderm split to form coelom.
127
Enterocoely
Mesoderm outpockets to form coelom.
128
Animal classification by four main attributes of body parts
1. Tissues2. Symmetry3. Body cavities4. Fate of the blastopore
129
Parazoa
- Lack true tissues- Typically asymmetricalTwo phylums only:- Placozoa- Porifera
130
Eumetazoa
- Possess true tissues
131
Radiata
- Radial symmetry- Diploblastic + Endoderm and ectoderm
132
Bilateria
- Bilateral symmetry- Triploblastic + Endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm
133
Germ layers present in the gastrula develop into ___ ___ ___.
Adult body parts
134
Body cavity variation
- Acoelomate + No cavity- Pseudocoelomate + Cavity touches endoderm and mesoderm- Coelomate + Cavity touches medoderm
135
Protostome
- Mouth develops from blastopore.- Spiral, determinate cleavage.- Schizocoely- Mesoderm derived from cells on lip of blastopore.
136
Deuterostome
- Anus develops from blastopore.- Radial, indeterminate cleavage.- Enterocoely- Mesoderm derives from walls of developing gut.- All are coelomates.
137
Cambrian Explosion
Rapid appearance of most major animal phyla around 500 million years ago.
138
Parazoans
Means "poorly defined tissues."Includes:- Phylum Placozoa- Phylum Porifera
139
Phylum Placozoa
The most primitive metazoans.- Feed by absorption.- Marine, discovered by chance.
140
Phylum Porifera
- Sessile- Filter water through canal system- Mostly marine- Possess an inner, middle, and outer layer.Classes:- Hexactinellida- Calcarea- Desmospongidae- Sclerospongiae
141
Spongocoel
Large cavity in center of sponge. Water enters this cavity via the pores.
142
Osculum
Opening on top of sponge through which water exits.
143
Sponge body layers
- Outer + Pinacocytes + Porocytes + Myocytes- Middle (Mesohy/mesogleal) + Spicules + Spongin + Amoebocytes- Inner + Choanocytes
144
Pinacocytes (outer)
Flat epidermal cells
145
Porocytes (outer)
Create the pore.
146
Myocytes (outer)
Allow the osculum to contract.
147
Mesohyl/mesoglea (middle)
Gelatinous substance that contains the amoebocytes.
148
Spicules (middle)
Used for support with a hard texture.
149
Spongin (middle)
Used for support with a spongy texture.
150
Amoebocytes (middle)
Undifferentiated cells that form spicules and secrete spongin.- Form egg cells.- Receive food from coanocytes and pass throughout the sponge.
151
Choanocytes (inner)
Flagellated cells that move water throughout the sponge.- Modified coanocytes form sperm cells.- Feed by trapping food particles in their collars and passing it to the amoebocytes. Amoebocytes then send food through the rest of the body.
152
Three body plans of sponges
- Asconoid- Syconoid- LeuconoidMore complex body plans allow for more surface area for food absorption.
153
Asconoid
Simplest body plan. Consists of a tube.
154
Syconoid
Tube with wavy extensions on its sides.
155
Leuconoid
Most complex body plan. Matrix of canals with multiple osculums.
156
Gemmules
Characteristic of freshwater (and some marine) sponges. Trap the amoebocytes in the absence of water so that they can survive while the rest of the cells perish.- Result by asexual reproduction and hostile environments.
157
Amphiblastula
Larval stage of sponges.- Will not feed until they settle, which takes 2-3 days.
158
Asexual reproduction in sponges
- Budding- Regeneration
159
Sexual reproduction in sponges
- May be dioecious or monoecious- Sperm cells (modified coanocyte) enters another sponge and is engulfed by its coanocyte.- This coanocyte penetrates the egg cell, passing the nuclei of the sperm cell to create an embryo.- Embryo develops into an amphiblastula.- Larva settles and attaches to bottom or other surface.
160
Class Hexactinellida
"Glass sponges"- Contained 6 rayed spicules made of silica (glass)- Simple syconoids- Marine- Exist below 200 meters- Shrimp may become trapped inside- E.g., venus basket
161
Class Calcarea
"Calcareous sponges"- Spicules made of calcium carbonate- May be asconoid, syconoid, or leuconoid- Marine- Exist below 100 meters
162
Class Desmospongidae
- Comprises 80-90% of sponge species- Siliceous spicules and/or spongin- Mostly marine + Contains the only freshwater sponge families- Variable form- Leuconoids
163
Class Sclerospongiae
- Found in tunnels in coral reefs + May damage reefs- Variable form- May contain silica and calcium carbonate spicules- Leuconoids- One group is predatory
164
Colors of sponges usually due to ___.
Dinoflagellates
165
Mutualistic symbiosis in sponges
- Dinoflagellates + Zooxanthellae that perform photosynthesis for the sponge.
166
Boring sponges
Bore holes into the host for shelter, killing it.Affect:- Hermit crab shells- Corals- Mussels and other mollusks
167
Phylum Cnidaria
- Radiata- Possess mouth with tentacles- Blind gut + Mouth and anus are the same opening- Mesoglea gives them shape- Possess cynocytes- Diploblastic with organs- No respiratory system + Breathe by diffusion of gases through moist skin.- Excrete cellular waste via diffusion into the water.Classes:- Hydrozoa- Scyphozoa- Anthozoa
168
Morphology of Cnidarians
- Polyp + E.g., anemones- Medusa + E.g., jellyfish
169
Cnidae
Contain a coiled thread that is discharged when triggered.
170
Cnidae varieties
- Nematocyst + Inject venom for feeding and protection- Spirocyst + Sticky thread for entangling prey- Ptychocyst + Create tubes for tube anemones
171
Cnidocyte
Structure containing the cnidae.
172
Nerve net
Interconnected neurons lacking a brain or cephalization.- Achieves little integration of information but serves simple behaviors.- Characteristic of Cnidarias, Ctenophors, and Echinoderms.
173
Cnidarian body plan
- Outer epithelium (epidermis)- Mesoglea (matrix)- Inner epithelium (gastrodermis)
174
Class Hydrozoa
- Mudusoid or polypoid + Polyp form is dominant + Alternate between medusa and polyp form- Polymorphic- Acellular mesoglea- Cnidae in epidermis- Nerve net- External fertilization- May produce male and female medusas but at different times- Possess planula- Asexual or sexual reproduction- E.g., Hydra (genus), Obelia (genus), man-o'-war
175
Hydromedusae
Medusa stage of hydrozoans that have both polyp and medusa stages. - Very small and found in some corals
176
Polymorphism
Division of labor amongst the colonial polyps.- Gastrozoid: Ingest food- Gonozoid: Reproductive- Dactylozoid: Protective- Skeletozoid: Support
177
Genus Hydra
- Freshwater- Atypical + Single polyp- Polyp stage only- Asexual reproduction by budding- Not colonial
178
Portuguese man-o'-war
Genus Physallia- Colony of specialized polyps attached to tentacles, which are attached to a floating structure or sail (gas-filled medusa).
179
Planula
Ciliated larval stage of hydrozoans.
180
Life cycle of Obelia
Asexual via budding.Sexual:- Colony forms some reproductive polyps, called medusa buds.- Medusa, possessing gonads, is released.- Medusa undergoes meiosis to release sperm or egg into the water.- Sperm or egg come into contact with another gamete to create a zygote.- Zygote undergoes cleavage to form a planula.- Ciliated planula attached to surface and becomes a developing polyp.- Polyp reaches maturity and is able to reproduce asexually to create more polyps.
181
Class Scyphomedusae
- Medusoid or polypoid + Medusa stage is dominant + Alternate between medusa and polyp form- Most common cnidarians- Cellular mesoglea- Cnidae in epidermis and gastrodermis- Gonads in gastrovascular cavity- E.g., jellyfish
182
Scyphomedusae
Medusa form of Scyphozoa
183
Order Cubomedusae
Box jellyfish or sea wasp- Common in Australia- Venom paralyzes heart, muscles, and causes neurological damage in minutes.- Very small- Tentacles on 4 corners of bell
184
Genus Cassiopeia
Upside-down jellyfish- Common in mangroves- Mutualistic symbiosis with green algae that live within its tissues (oral arms)
185
Scyphozoa life cycle
- Scyphistoma undergoes strobilation to produce ephyra.- Ephyra matures into an adult medusa able to produce egg or sperm.- Following fertilization, ciliated planula develops and attaches to a surface to form a young polyp.- Polyp develops into a scyphistoma.
186
Scyphistoma
Mature Scyphozoa polyp able to undergo strobilation to produce ephyrae.
187
Strobilation
Process by which the scyphistoma produces ephyrae.
188
Ephyra
Young medusa stage of Scyphozoa that develops into an adult medusa.
189
Class Anthozoa
- Polypoid only- Cellular mesoglea- Cnidae in epidermis and gastrodermis- Contain septa (mesenteries) in gut- Skeleton of water- Capable of fission- E.g., corals and sea anemones
190
Septa (mesenteries)
Radial partitions within the body cavity.
191
Fission
Splitting in two will create two separate organisms.
192
Life cycle of Anthozoa
Asexual:- Budding- Fission (longitudinal/transverse)Sexual:- Sperm and eggs released by colony into water.- Zygote develops following fertilization.- Planula for about 4 days.- Planula settles and polyp begins to develop.- Polyp undergoes budding to create a colony. + Colony takes 4-5 years to sexually mature.
193
Following budding, polyps remain ___ to one another.
Connected
194
Black band disease
Bacterial disease that kills coral.
195
Coral reefs are nutrient-___.
Poor
196
Corals have a symbiotic association with ___.
Algae - Zooxanthellae (particularly dinoflagellates)
197
Hermatypic corals
"Coral forming" or "hard corals"- Stony, reef-building corals.- Possess zooxanthellae- E.g., Scleractinians and Hexacorallia
198
Coral reefs susceptible to deterioration by ___ and ___.
Fungus, bacteria
199
Ahermatypic corals
"Soft corals"- Octocorals and gorgonians- E.g., sea whip, sea fan, sea pen
200
Phylum Ctenophora
"Comb jellies"- Medusa-like- Diploblastic- No nematocysts (usually)- 8 comb rows with retractable tentacles (usually) and fused cilia + Largest animal to use cilia for locomotion - Considered plankton- Colloblasts- BioluminescentTwo classes:- Tentaculata + Two tentacles- Nuda + No retractable tentacles
201
Colloblasts
Sticky filaments that cover the tentacles and trap prey.
202
Characteristics of Eumetazoans with bilateral symmetry (applies to all phyla following this card)
- Cephalization + Nervous tissue is concentrated towards one end of the organism, producing a head region.- Triploblastic (3 germ layers) + Ectoderm + Mesoderm + Endoderm- Dorsal/ventral- Anterior/posterior
203
Three body forms found in bilateral organisms
- Acoelomate- Pseudocoelomate- Coelomate
204
Radiata are ___ while bilateria are ___.
Diploblastic, triploblastic
205
Phylum Platyhelminthes
"Flatworms" or planarians- Acoelomate- Gas exchange occurs through body surface- Hermaphroditic- Able to regenerate- Dorso-ventrally flattened to increase surface area- Incomplete digestive system + No anus- No respiratory system + Breathe by diffusion of gases through moist skin.- Possess protonephridia- Possess eye spotsClasses:- Turbellaria- Trematoda- Cestoda
206
Anatomy of a planarian
- Simplified cephalization with ganglia.- Eye spots to perceive light.- Pharynx connected to mouth at the center of the body.- Genital pore that leads to both male and female reproductive organs.
207
Protonephridia
"Flame cells"Hollow cell containing cilia and used for cellular waste excretion. Cilia draws waste products in through a tube and filters it out through the membrane folds. Other cells are unable to enter the flame cell.
208
Asexual reproduction in planarians
- Fission + Each piece when cut regenerates into a new animal. Anterior or posterior will form depending on which end is cut. Cutting a certain portion too close to the head or tail may result in two heads or two tails. Splitting the head forms two heads.- Regeneration + Process of growing lost body parts.
209
Sexual reproduction in flatworms
- Mostly hermaphroditic- Hypodermic impregnation + Penis acts as a dagger to penetrate the skin of another worm and deposit sperm.
210
Class Turbellaria
- Free-living + Not parasitic- Mostly small- Mostly marine- Possess Rhabdites + Cells unique to this class
211
Class Trematoda
"Flukes"- Parasitic- Syncitium + No separation between cells- Possess suckers- E.g., Schistosoma mansoni, liver fluke
212
Schistosoma (blood fluke) life cycle
- Mature flukes reside in blood vessels of human intestine.- Mating occurs in human and fertilized eggs are released in feces.- Eggs develop into "miracidium", which then infect snails.- Miracidium reproduce asexually, resulting in "cercaria."- Cercaria penetrate the skin of a new human host and develop into mature flukes.
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Miracidium
Ciliated fluke larvae that prey on snails. - Cannot penetrate humans.
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Cercaria
Fork-tailed fluke larvae that prey on humans.
215
Flukes cause ___ ___ in humans.
Liver damage
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Class Cestoda
"Tapeworms"- Parasites- Lack digestive tract- Possess reproductive system- Possess excretory system- Possess a scolex- Possess proglottids- Hermaphroditic and able to self-fertilize- Usually only one individual + This is the reason for self-fertilization- May cause cysticerosis- E.g., fish, pork, and beef tapeworms + All can infect humans
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Scolex
Head of the tapeworm. Adheres to the intestinal walls by the use of suckers.
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Proglottids
Segments of the tapeworm body that contain the reproductive organs.
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Cestoda life cycle
- Mature tapeworm lives in human intestine.- Self-fertilizes to create mature proglottids with zygotes.- Proglottids released in feces and then burst, releasing zygotes onto the grass.- Cow ingests the grass with zygotes.- Zygotes develop into larvae and travel from digestive system to bloodstream and then to the muscle, where they encyst.- Human eats poorly cooked beef and ingests larvae.
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Cysticercosis
Condition in which a human ingests a tapeworm zygote by eating vegetables. The larvae encyst anywhere they are able to.
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Adaptations for parasitism
- Adhesive organs- Sense organs reduced- Digestive tract reduced or lost- Body wall protection- Larval stages in different animals allow for utilization of different habitats.
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Phylum Nemertea
"Ribbon worms"- Pseudocoelomates- Possess a proboscis with stylet- Posses a "rhynchocoel"- Complete digestive tract + Posses mouth and anus- First to develop a closed circulatory system
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Proboscis
Mouth that is able to shoot out to catch prey.
224
Stylet
Spear at the end of the proboscis.
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Rhynchocoel
Cavity above the digestive system. It only has one entrance and contains the proboscis.
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Closed circulatory system
Blood is contained within the blood vessels.
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Nemertea reproduction
Sexual:- SpawningAsexual:- Fragmentation
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Fragmentation
If broken into multiple pieces, each piece becomes a new organism.
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Phylum Rotifera
- Dioecious- Pseudocoelomates- Complete digestive tract- Multicellular- Microscopic- "Crown of cilia"- "Eutely"- Reproduce via "parthogenesis"- Possess a "peduncle"- Posses a bladder + Excretory organ
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Eutely
Born with the same number of cells that they'll have throughout their entire life.
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Crown of cilia
Crown is covered in cilia which are used to bring in food for filter feeding.
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Parthogenesis
Asexual reproduction via the development of the unfertilized egg of the female.
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Peduncle
Structure that is used to attach to substrate. Able to retract when animal is motile.
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Phylum Nematoda
"Roundworms"- Free-living and parasitic forms + Mostly parasitic - Affect flora and fauna- Dioeceous- Very abundant- Unsegmented- Vermiform + Cylindrical in shape- Complete digestive system- Small brain with lateral, ventral, and dorsal nerve cords- Use a specialized gland for their unique excretory system- Sexual reproduction- Longitudinal muscles from anterior to posterior + Allow for longitudinal whipping- Possess a cloaca
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Cloaca
Common opening for reproductive, digestive, and excretory system.
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Free-living nematode species
Caenorhabditis elegans - Important decomposers
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Simplest, non-damaging nematode species
- Pinworms- WhipwormsThese stay within the intestines and do not migrate to other tissues.
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Roundworm (Genus Ascaris) life cycle in humans
- Ingestion of water/vegetables contaminated by feces with roundworm eggs.- Eggs hatch and larvae migrate to intestine.- Larvae burrow through intestinal wall into the bloodstream of lymph ducts.- Larvae migrate to heart.- Larvae migrate to lungs.- Larvae are coughed out, swallowed, and return back to the intestine where they mature.- Mature roundworm sexually reproduces to create eggs, released in feces.
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Roundworms ___ before leaving each new tissue.
Molt (4 times total)
240
Hookworms method of infection in humans
Penetrate the skin, not contracted via ingestion. - Intestinal parasites that, like roundworms, migrate to other tissues.
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Filaria
Nematodes that are microscopic until adulthood. Larvae within flies or mosquitoes are passed to the host where they mature. As they increase in size, they clog lymph ducts, trapping water in the tissues and causing swelling.Diseases caused by Filaria:- Elephantiasis- Larva migrans- Blindness
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Larva migrans
Caused by dog feces, often on the beach. Larvae enter via the skin and later emerge through the skin to release eggs. - May be pulled out with a pencil a little bit at a time, but breaking the worm will cause infection.
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Trichinella spirallis
Larvae reside in pork muscle which is ingested. They then form calcified cysts in the human muscle.
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Phylum Mollusca
- Schizocoely (like all protostomes)- Coelomate (like all protostomes)- Abundant aquatic and terrestrial forms- Sexual reproduction- Excretory system + Metanephridia (type of nephridium)- Open circulatory system + Except in Cephalopods- 2nd largest animal group- Shell (usually present) composed of periostracum, prismatic layer, and nacreous layer.- Head and muscular foot- Radula + Except in bivalvesClasses:- Monoplacophora- Polyplacophora- Gastropoda- Bivalvia- Scaphopoda- Cephalopoda
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Metanephridia (type of nephridium)
Excretory gland that acts as a kidney. Consists of a series of tubes with open ends to filter fluid within the coelom.- Reabsorbs usable nutrients prior to the release of waste.- Mollusks possess 2.- Connects coelomic cavity to the pallial groove.
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Visceral mass
Gills and gut. Contains the internal organs and often protected by the shell.
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Mantle
Layer of living cells that secrete the shell.
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The shell is composed of ___ ___ and ___.
Calcium carbonate, proteins
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Radula
Mouth that is able to protrude and retract.- Full of teeth- Made of chitin
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Mantle cavity
Contains the opening to the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems.- Anus- Nephridium- Gills- Reproductive organs
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Hemolynth
Blood in mollusks.
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Nephridiapore
Opening of the excretory system to the outside world.
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Reproduction in mollusks
Egg or sperm develop in gonads and released into the coelom. Nephridia extracts them from the coelom and releases them into the mantle cavity so external fertilization can occur.
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Shell composition
- Periostracum + External layer- Prismatic layer + Between periostracum and nacreous layer- Nacreous layer + Between prismatic layer and mantle
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Pearl
Form when sand or a parasite is inserted into space between nacreous layer and mantle. Mantle secretes nacreous layer around the foreign object, creating a pearl.
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Trochophore
Larva stage of chitons and gastropods.
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Veliger
Larva stage of gastropods that contains a shell.- Develops from trochophore- No veliger stage in chitons
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Class Monoplacophora
- Single conical shell- Uncommon- Mantle cavity located in space between foot and shell, surrounding entire foot.
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Class Polyplacophora
"Chitons"- Means "many shells"- Suction to rocks to trap water in mantle cavity when the tide goes down. This allows the gills access to water.- Mantle cavity surrounds entire foot.
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Class Gastropoda
- Variable shell types- Twisted shell in species with shells + In these species, mantle cavity and anus located at anterior + Undergo "torsion"- 80% of all mollusk species- Aquatic species possess gills- Terrestrial species use diffusion of oxygen to exchange gas through mantle cavity and mantle wall.
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Torsion
The rotation of the visceral mass, mantle, and shell 180˚ with respect to the head and foot of the gastropod.
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Shell types of gastropods
- Planospiral + Shell is flattened on both sides and coiled.- Heliospiral + Contain a helix and a spiral - E.g., conch- Shell-less + Mantle cavity at posterior - E.g., nudibranch
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Mantle cavity is located at the ___ during the larval stage.
Posterior
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Terrestrial gastropods use ___ fertilization.
Internal
265
Marine gastropods use ___ fertilization.
External
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Class Bivalvia
- Dioeceous- Lack a radula- Complete digestive system- Siphons located in mantle cavity + Incurrent + Excurrent- "Umbo"- "Hinge ligament"- "Abductor muscles"- "Protractor/retractor muscles"
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Umbo
Raised bump at anterior of bivalve.
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Hinge ligament
Opens shell slowly.
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Abductor muscles
Close shell quickly.
270
Protractor muscles
Push foot out.
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Retractor muscles
Bring foot in.
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Eye spots
Characteristic of scallops able to detect light.
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Shipworms
Bivalve that lacks a significant shell and burrows in wood.
274
Glochidia
Bivalve that attracts fish with a lure resembling another fish. Releases its parasitic larvae which then attach to the gills of the fish to draw blood.
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Bivalve feeding mechanism
Filter feeders. Mucus on gills moves food particles to mouth, and waste is excreted via the anus near the excurrent siphon.
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Class Scaphopoda
"Tusk shells"- Single, tusk-shaped shell- Burrowing
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Class Cephalopoda
- Walk on their heads ("foot-head")- Shell absent, reduced, or spiraled- Tentacles/arms with suckers- Single siphon + Able to close and trap water- Closed circulatory system- Well developed eyes/eyesight- Intelligent- Beak- "Pen"- Ink gland- Chromatophores- E.g., cuttlefish, squid, nautilus, octopus
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Pen
Modified, reduced shell.
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The tube of the squid is the ___.
Mantle
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Mating in squids
Male uses his tentacle to retrieve sperm and injects it into the female in the form of a sperm sac. Male then makes a quick getaway.
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Chromatophores
Cells that contain pigment and are able to contract or expand in order to change the color of the organism. Surrounded by muscle that controls contractions.
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Nautilus
- Oldest cephalopods- Only live in last shell chamber- Possess a chambered shell with siphuncle.
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Siphuncle
Tube that passes through the shell of nautiluses regulate gas flow and control buoyancy.
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Octopi have no ___ body parts.
Hard
285
Ordovician seas
During this time there was an abundance of crinoids, nautiloids, and trilobites.
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Lophophorates (may not be on exam)
- Posses lophophores + Mouth surrounded by ciliated tentacles- Protostomes and deuterostomes- Variable coelom formation- Variable fate of the blastopore- Ribosomes are protostome-likePhylums:- Phoronida- Bryozoa- Brachiopoda
Anatomy and Physiology
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