How do infants respond, by 3 months of age, to maternal expressions of: 1. Joy 2. Sadness 3. Anger
- Joy – express joy 2. Sad – mouthing to express distress 3. Anger – expressions of interest plummet, freezing rises, and a touch of anger
What are Trevarthen’s definitions of subjectivity and intersubjectivity?
Subjectivity - display individual consciousness and intentionality. Intersubjectivity - ability to adapt or fit this subjective control to the subjectivity of others.
What were the responses of infants in the three conditions of the Murray and Trevarthen still-face experiment?
Still (blank) face – signs of protest, regain mother’s attention then distress. Replay – baby disturbed, withdraws from interaction (disengagement), brings hands to face (self-regulation, comfort). Proves baby’s response is not due to lack of stimulation, but due to lack of contingent responding. Interruption – infants became quiet, less positive but not distressed or avoidant.
The failure of ___________ maternal responding to infant signals, by way of deliberate __________ or maternal __________, typically has a disruptive and disorganizing effect on infants under 4 months of age
The failure of contingentt maternal responding to infant signals, by way of deliberate perturbation or maternal depression, typically has a disruptive and disorganizing effect on infants under 4 months of age.
What 3 factors measured at 2 months predict insecure attachment at 18 months (Tomlinson et al. 2005)?
Maternal depression, maternal intrusiveness and maternal remoteness predicted predicted insecure attachment at 18 months.
In Tomlinson et al. (2005), which factors at 18 months predict attachment style at 18 months?
Only maternal sensitivity from 18 month assessment makes independent contribution to attachment.
Before 2 months, infants can do what with faces? (three things)
- Recognise faces/facial configurations. 2. Reproduce facial and gestural configurations. 3. Have structured responses to emotional facial expressions.
By 2 months, infants can… (three things)
- Engage in reciprocal dyadic (face-to-face) communicative interactions; proto-conversations (e.g., Trevarthen, 1979) 2. Are sensitive to perturbation of such interactions in a manner that suggests they have a ‘social expectancy’ and they are highly motivated to seek interactions (e.g., Murray & Trevarthen, 1985) 3. Make a fundamental distinction between people and objects in their orienting responses (Brazelton et al., 1974; Trevarthen, 1974)
One of the most commonly observed and ‘known’ changes in infant social interaction, which occurs at about 9 months, is…
Stranger wariness or stranger anxiety.
What is the method, rationale and key finding of the Gergely et al. (1995) experiment (balls and walls)?
Kids at 6 and 9 months are habituated to one of two stimuli. Experimental: Small ball jumps wall to big ball Control: Small ball jumps to big ball with no wall Then wall removed and kids shown either same jump or small just rolling to big. If kids respond only to novelty, according to classic habituation paradigm, we would expect to see higher attentional recovery to new trajectory - ball rolling. BUT, kids at 9 months showed greatest attentional recovery to ball jumping in absence of wall – they could understand that if the small wanted to join the big, this action didn’t make sense. Kids at 9 months can understand goal-directed agency. This effect not found at 6 months.
When do infants begin to demonstrate interest in outside entities (other than caregiver)?
Latter half of first year.
What are the 3 kinds of joint attention in triadic interactions?
- Sharing attention – all by 9 months Lowest level. Baby and caregiver look at object together. Gaze alternation between object and parent. Methodologically, want to be sure that looks to object and parent are not incidental. 2. Following attention – all by 14 months Infant now can follow gaze so well it knows what people are looking at. Deliberate attention following, much less ambiguous. Follow attention via gaze. Follow behaviour via imitation. 3. Directing attention – all by 15 months Imperative gestures (involves pointing) Declarative gestures (involves pointing) Verbal communication
What did Carpenter et al. (1998) report in their study of attention in triadic interactions from 9-15 months?
Majority of infants fail at 9 months but pass at 15 months. But at 15 months most of these kids still can’t do referential language.
What are the results of the visual cliff study?
Percentage of 12-month-old infants who crossed over when mother’s expression was: Joy - 74% Fear - 0% Interest - 73% Anger - 11% Sadness - 33%
What are two implications of the visual cliff study?
- Infants appreciate that parents can supply information–in the form of an emotional appraisal–about novel objects (i.e., person, thing or situation) 2. Infants spontaneously seek such information from a third party or referee (e.g., parent or experimental confederate) to resolve their own uncertainty and to guide their actions
What are the four prerequisites for social learning?
- Infant must be able to decode signal 2. Infant must understand referential quality of information 3. Infant must appreciate the potential for social communication of information * 4. Infant should have the skills to elicit information
What do the Liszkowski et al. (2007) pointing study reveal, and what does this mean?
Infants more likely to point when confederate looking away from referent. This means they usual social gestures to convey information. Infants similarly likely to point when confederate is looking AT referent and has positive expression. This means they use social gestures to share.
What are Trevarthen’s notions of innate infant intersubjectivity and secondary intersubjectivity?
Intersubjectivity – The infant is born with an awareness specifically receptive to the subjective states in other persons. Secondary Intersubjectivity – person-person-object awareness in triadic interactions.
What differentiates humans from apes in the way they can share attention?
Apes can follow gaze, BUT they do not seem to grasp that partners in communication share a joint attentional frame – they look where you look but don’t assume that you are trying to share a point of view. Thus, in game of hide-and-seek, 14-month-olds understand adult pointing to bucket may reveal something within (assumption follows from joint attentional frame) In similar game with chimp, point or look to the very same bucket elicits a response of the type: Bucket? So what? Where food?
How are these four domains, each of which is seen in an individualistic manner, transformed by shared intentionality? Gaze following → Social manipulation → Group activity → Social learning →
Gaze following → joint attention Social manipulation → cooperative learning Group activity → collaboration Social learning → instructed learning
What is the difference between sympathy, empathy and personal distress?
Empathy – feeling what the other person would be expected to feel. Sympathy – feeling sorrow or concern for the distressed or needy other. Involves other-oriented altruistic motivations and probably originates with empathic responding in many situations. Personal distress – self-focused, aversive emotional reaction to another person’s demotion or condition (e.g., discomfort, anxiety). Also probably stems from empathic responding but involves an ‘egoistic’ motivation to alleviate one’s own distress rather than the other’s.
By 12 months infants can… (4 things)
- Make a sharp distinction between people who are known and those who are not known (e.g., stranger wariness). 2. Are sensitive to goal directed agency, they know that people are acting in the service of their goals. 3. Engage in triadic social communication, including social referencing. 4. Spontaneously inform and share with others, particularly when they (the others) are nice!
What are Hoffman’s 4 stages of development of empathy?
- Global Empathy (pre-person permanence): • There is a fusion between self and other (out of date - by 6 months kids see themselves as agents) • Later empathy is built on this identification (contagion) 2. “Egocentric” Empathy (12 to 24 months): • Proper understanding of self-other distinction - the experience of others, BUT • Poor understanding of others’ inner states 3. Empathy for another’s feelings (3 years): • Children understand that others’ feelings differ from their own • Better able to make empathic overtures 4. Empathy for another’s general plight (>5 years): • Emergent concept of person as continuous; having separate histories and identities • Life condition of others informs children’s actions
How does empathy develop behaviourally? (Based on Zhan-Wexler et al. study of how children react to another’s distress) 3 stages
- 10 to 12 months • Children often unresponsive to distress – they just ‘watch’ • ~50% time, show some distress themselves (frown, look sad or cry) - 12 to 24 months • Fewer signs of personal distress • Active interventions increase • Approach and touch person in distress • From ~18 months: bringing objects to distressed person; seeking help for or protecting the distressed person - From 24 months • Children often respond to distress, regardless of their role in creating it. • There are considerable individual differences.
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1 – Attention 126
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2 – Attention 216
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3 – Attention 3 – Automatic Processes37
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4 – Attention 4 – Control over attention15
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5 – Attention 5 – Inattentional blindness7
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6 – Memory 130
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7 – Memory 227
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8 – Memory 327
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9 – Memory 424
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Quiz on tutorials 8-1163
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Problem solving34
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Decision making29
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Social cognition41
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Prejudice50
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10 – Memory 5 – representation of knowledge14
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11 – Memory 6 – semantic vs episodic memory21
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Tactics of Manipulation54
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Developmental46
