What is discourse?
How language is used in longer connected piece of writing or speaking, looking at text above sentence level. This can include both the organisation of the content of the text an devices that are used to give a unity to a piece of text.
For example, in a text such as a newspaper, the convention is that the headline will be in present simple and written in bold letters. We also expect some usage of present perfect to show the relevance of the topic up until the present.
What is an exophoric reference?
What is anaphoric reference?
What is a cataphoric reference?
What is a deictic reference?
An exophoric reference (external reference) refers to the shared knowledge between the reader and writer/two speakers outside of the text/conversation. e.g. the President.
An anaphoric reference (backwards reference) refers to something which was mentioned before.
A cataphoric reference (forward reference) refers o something which will be later on in the text/conversation).
A deictic reference (context) depends on the immediate context of the conversation (physical or social).
personal deixis, e.g. I
spatial deixis, e.g. here
temporal deixis, e.g. now.
What are “discourse markers”?
They organise speech or writing, manage the flow, show ideas are connected.
For example, You know.
What is coherence and what is cohesion?
Coherence is the overall sense or logic of a text. We find coherence by using our knowledge of the context and the world to try and interpret what we are given.
Cohesion is if the words and structures connect ideas.
What is parallelism?
The repetition of grammatical structures within a text to create cohesion.
Example
She likes reading, writing, and jogging. The verbs are all in the gerund structure
What is vague language?
Spoken language takes place in real-time, there is a lot of pressure on speakers to get their message across without too much time spent searching for the most accurate term or expression.
e.g. That place where you can get water from (instead of fountain).
What is a genre?
A genre is a text type (spoken or written) with distinctive features of structure, language and/or layout which enable people to recognise it as an example of that type.
How can cohesion be achieved?
Cohesion can be achieved by
lexical cohesion, e.g. repetition of words, chains of words belonging to the same lexical set (hospital/doctor)
grammatical cohesion, e.g.
Tense agreement
Pronoun reference, e.g. The man.. he..
Article reference, e.g. the hospital..the place…
Substitution, The product.. the one..
Ellipsis
Discourse markers, e.g. linking devices, linkers and conjuncts
Parallelism
Referencing
Marc and Frieda went into the flat. It was just the sort of place they were looking for.
What assumptions can speakers make in spoken discourse?
Assumptions about the degree of shared knowledge
We are constantly making and refining guesses as to what shared knowledge there is between participants in an
exchange. If we think the person we are speaking to already knows something, it changes how we refer to it and
how much we need to say.
A: Did you see the match?
the listener will know precisely which match is being referred to and will be able to reply. If the speaker didn’t
think this was shared knowledge then he would need to be much clearer in his question.
Assumptions about cooperativeness
We usually assume that a person speaking with us is being cooperative – that when they say something, they are
trying to be clear, relevant and truthful. Thus, when we hear a comment that doesn’t immediately seem to make
any sense, we seek to find out what it might mean.
A: Where’s my jacket ?
B: I packed the suitcases this morning.
There is no cohesive link between the question and the response. However, A is likely to assume that B is giving a
clear, relevant and true answer and so will seek to find how the answer relates to the question, by filling in the
gaps e.g. “B probably means that when she packed the suitcases my jacket was packed along with the other
things.”
What two types of spoken discourse exist?
Interactional - the aim of this is to maintain relationships; what is said is less important than the fact of
making contact - e.g. “How are things? “ “Fine”
Transactional - the aim of this is to transmit information, request a service etc. In practice, very few conversations are purely interactional or transactional – transactional conversations nearly always have an interactional element - e.g. if you go into a shop in England, you may make a comment about the
weather before you say what you want to buy.
What are linkers? What are linking devices? What are conjuncts?
Linking devices: All tools to help link ideas, e.g. for example, on the other hand,
Linkers: basic connectors, e.g. but, because.
Conjuncts: sub-set of linking devices, show logical relationships, e.g. Therefore, However.
What are speech acts?
Speech acts are actions performed via language. They are categorized into various types, depending on the function they serve, such as assertions, requests, promises, apologies, etc.
What are framing moves in spoken discourse?
clear signals, e.g. Now then, Right
What is an exchange in spoken discourse?
An exchange in discourse refers to the turn-taking interaction between two or more participants.
What are the three different moves in an exchange?
First move in an exchange is called “initiating”, the second a “response” and the third a “follow-up”.
What is an “ellipsis”?
The omission of otherwise expected elements because they are retrievable from the previous text or context.
Example: “You label, and I’ll stack” : Label and stack are transitive verbs and they need an object, but it is clear in this context what the object is.
Common forms of ellipsis are subject-pronoun omissions, e.g. “hope so”.
What are some relationships between clauses/sentences?
matching (when segments are contrasted or compared with each other)
logical sequencing (cause/consequence, phenomenon-reason)
problem-solution pattern
What is substitution?
Substitution is a type of cohesive device in discourse analysis, where instead of repeating a word or phrase, we replace it with another word to avoid repetition and maintain flow.
One: I offered him a seat. He said he didn’t want one.
Do: Did Mary take that letter? She might have done.
So/not: Did you need a lift? If so, wait for me. If not, I’ll see you there.
same: She chose the sandwich. I chose the same.
What is “theme” and “rheme”?
Theme = The starting point or topic of the sentence (what the sentence is about).
Rheme = The rest of the sentence, which provides new information about the Theme.
Theme: “I”
Rheme: “can’t believe how fast she finished the project”
Why Are Theme and Rheme Relevant in Discourse Analysis?
Information Flow: Understanding Theme and Rheme helps us see how information flows in discourse.
Focus and Emphasis: Speakers use the Theme and Rheme structure to emphasize what they consider important.
Discourse Strategies: Speakers can strategically use Theme and Rheme to guide attention, create suspense, or highlight contrast or comparison.
In longer stretches of discourse (like paragraphs or entire conversations), the Theme of one sentence may become the Rheme of the next. This kind of progression is important for structuring information over time and for ensuring coherence.
Example:
“I went to the store this morning. The store had a huge sale on books. The books were all discounted by 50%.”
What is “left displacement” and “right-displacement”
Left Displacement: Moving information to the beginning of the sentence for emphasis or focus (e.g., “Yesterday, I went to the store”).
A type of left displacement is object fronting.
Original (standard order): “I saw the movie.”
Object fronting: “The movie I saw.”
Right Displacement: Moving information to the end of the sentence, often to add extra detail or emphasis (e.g., “I went to the store yesterday to buy some books”).
What is an example of relexicalisation in spoken discourse?
Relexicalisation refers to how conversation partners often adopt or mirror each other’s vocabulary, phrases, or terms during a conversation. This process helps them develop and expand the topic being discussed, making the exchange more interactive and cohesive.
Example:
Speaker 1: “I’ve been feeling really stressed at work lately.”
Speaker 2: “Yeah, I know what you mean. I’ve been under a lot of pressure too.”
Speaker 2 picks up on “stressed” and relexicalises it with “pressure”, developing the topic of work-related emotions.
Example:
Speaker 1: “We’re going to have to plan everything down to the last detail.”
Speaker 2: “Right, we’ll need to coordinate everything perfectly.”
Speaker 2 picks up on “plan” and substitutes it with “coordinate”, showing they’re on the same page and expanding on the idea in a way that fits the flow of the conversation.
Halliday mentions tenor, field and mode. What do these words mean in discourse analysis?
Field (what is happening – the subject matter),
Tenor (who is involved – the participants and their roles), and
Mode (how the communication takes place – the channel and the degree of formality).
What does prominence mean?
Prominence in phonology refers to the degree of emphasis or stress placed on a syllable or word within an utterance. This prominence is a key feature of intonation and is crucial for conveying meaning, focus, and emotion in speech.
Key Aspects of Prominence:
Pitch: The prominence of a syllable or word is often marked by a change in pitch—usually a higher pitch or a pitch movement (e.g., rising or falling).
Stress: The syllable or word that carries the most stress in an utterance is often the one that is prominent.
Volume: Loudness can also contribute to prominence, making certain words stand out.
Duration: Sometimes, the prominent syllable or word is held for a slightly longer time than others.
In intonation studies, the nucleus is the most prominent syllable within a tone unit (or intonation group).
“I told him to go to the STORE.”
In this sentence, “STORE” would likely be the nucleus because it is the most prominent word—it carries the main stress and the highest pitch.
What is back-channelling?
Linguistic means of making it clear to the speaker that we are attending to the message and not taking a turn.
These consists of vocalisations, such as mm, ah-ha and short phrases, such as right, yeah, no, sure.
