BIOMOLECULES > DNA OVERVIEW > Flashcards

DNA OVERVIEW Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the structure of DNA?

A

Double-stranded helical molecule with complementary base pairs adenine-thymine and cytosine-guanine

DNA carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, and reproduction of all known organisms.

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2
Q

What is the function of DNA?

A

Carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, and reproduction of all known organisms

DNA serves as a template for mRNA synthesis, converting genetic information into functional proteins.

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3
Q

Describe the replication process of DNA.

A

Semi-conservative process where DNA duplicates during cell division, ensuring genetic continuity

This process is crucial for maintaining genetic information across generations.

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4
Q

What is the structure of RNA?

A

Single-stranded nucleic acid with adenine-uracil and cytosine-guanine base pairs

RNA plays a key role in protein synthesis and other cellular functions.

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5
Q

Name the types of RNA.

A
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA)
  • Transfer RNA (tRNA)
  • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Each type of RNA has a specific role in the process of protein synthesis.

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6
Q

What is the function of RNA?

A

Facilitates protein synthesis by conveying genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes for translation

RNA also participates in regulatory processes and gene expression.

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7
Q

What is transcription in the context of RNA?

A

RNA synthesis from DNA template, creating various types of RNA molecules

This process is essential for the expression of genes.

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8
Q

What are the roles of RNA beyond protein synthesis?

A
  • Regulatory processes
  • Gene expression
  • Cellular functions, including catalysis (ribozymes)

RNA has diverse functions in the cell, highlighting its importance beyond just being a messenger.

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9
Q

List the nucleobases found in both DNA and RNA.

A
  • Guanine (G)
  • Cytosine (C)
  • Adenine (A)

These nucleobases are fundamental components of nucleic acids.

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10
Q

Which nucleobase is found only in DNA?

A

Thymine (T)

Thymine is replaced by uracil in RNA.

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11
Q

Which nucleobase is found only in RNA?

A

Uracil (U)

Uracil replaces thymine in RNA structures.

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12
Q

Photo of nucleobases

A
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13
Q

What is Chargaff’s Rule in DNA?

A

Adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T) and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G)

A results in equality: %A = %T and %G = %C.

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14
Q

How many hydrogen bonds are formed between adenine (A) and thymine (T)?

A

Two hydrogen bonds

This pairing is part of Chargaff’s Rule.

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15
Q

How many hydrogen bonds are formed between cytosine (C) and guanine (G)?

A

Three hydrogen bonds

This pairing is part of Chargaff’s Rule.

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16
Q

What does the TPC Mnemonic stand for?

A

All-Tigers Can-Growl

This mnemonic helps remember the base pairing rules.

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17
Q

What does DNA stand for?

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

DNA is a double-stranded molecule.

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18
Q

What does RNA stand for?

A

Ribonucleic Acid

RNA is a single-stranded molecule.

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19
Q

What type of sugar is found in DNA?

A

Deoxyribose

This sugar is part of the DNA structure.

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20
Q

What type of sugar is found in RNA?

A

Ribose

This sugar is part of the RNA structure.

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21
Q

Is DNA double-stranded or single-stranded?

A

Double-stranded

This structure is crucial for its function.

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22
Q

Is RNA double-stranded or single-stranded?

A

Single-stranded

This structure allows for different functions compared to DNA.

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23
Q

What are the nucleobases in DNA?

A
  • Adenine (A)
  • Thymine (T)
  • Cytosine (C)
  • Guanine (G)

These bases pair according to Chargaff’s Rule.

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24
Q

DNA PHOTO

A
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25
RNA PHOTO
26
What are the **components** of a **nucleoside**?
* Nitrogenous base * Sugar molecule ## Footnote Bases include adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, or uracil.
27
What is the **structure** of a **nucleoside**?
* Lacks phosphate groups * Comprises a base (A, T, C, G, or U) and a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) ## Footnote Nucleosides are essential for forming nucleotides.
28
What are the **components** of a **nucleotide**?
* Nitrogenous base * Sugar molecule * One or more phosphate groups ## Footnote Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids.
29
What is the **structure** of a **nucleotide**?
* Includes adenine triphosphate (ATP) * Guanine triphosphate (GTP) * Deoxyadenosine triphosphate (dATP) ## Footnote Nucleotides play a crucial role in cellular energy transfer.
30
How do **nucleosides** and **nucleotides** interact?
* Nucleosides serve as the basic building blocks for nucleotides ## Footnote This relationship is fundamental in the formation of nucleic acids.
31
What role do **nucleotides** play in **DNA** and **RNA**?
* Contribute to the structure of DNA and RNA * Form the basis for genetic information ## Footnote Nucleotides are essential for the storage and transmission of genetic information.
32
What does the **TPC mnemonic** stand for in relation to nucleotides?
PURines are pure As Gold - adenine, guanine; CUT the pyrimidines - cytosine, thymidine ## Footnote This mnemonic helps remember the classification of nitrogenous bases.
33
PHOTO of Nucleoside vs Nucleotide
34
**Purines** always base pair with which type of nucleotides?
Pyrimidines ## Footnote Purines include Adenine (A) and Guanine (G), while pyrimidines include Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), and Uracil (U).
35
How many hydrogen bonds do **G-C bonds** form?
3 hydrogen bonds ## Footnote G-C bonds are stronger due to the increased number of hydrogen bonds.
36
How many hydrogen bonds do **A-T bonds** form?
2 hydrogen bonds ## Footnote A-T bonds are weaker compared to G-C bonds.
37
What is the relationship between **H-bonds** and **melting temperature (Tm)**?
Increased H-bonds = Increased bond strength = Increased melting temperature ## Footnote Higher GC content leads to a higher melting temperature.
38
Which base pairs are considered **stronger** due to increased hydrogen bonds?
G-C bonds ## Footnote G-C bonds are harder to break apart compared to A-T bonds.
39
What is the structure of **purines**?
Double Ring ## Footnote Purines include Adenine (A) and Guanine (G), both found in DNA and RNA.
40
What is the structure of **pyrimidines**?
Single Ring ## Footnote Pyrimidines include Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), and Uracil (U).
41
Which pyrimidine is found only in **DNA**?
Thymine (T) ## Footnote Uracil (U) is found only in RNA.
42
Which pyrimidine is found only in **RNA**?
Uracil (U) ## Footnote Thymine (T) is exclusive to DNA.
43
Which purine is represented by the letter **A**?
Adenine ## Footnote Adenine is found in both DNA and RNA.
44
Which purine is represented by the letter **G**?
Guanine ## Footnote Guanine is also found in both DNA and RNA.
45
True or false: Higher **GC content** leads to a lower melting temperature.
FALSE ## Footnote Higher GC content actually leads to a higher melting temperature.
46
What mnemonic can help remember the strength of **C-G bonds**?
"C-G bonds are Crazy Glue." ## Footnote This mnemonic emphasizes the strength of G-C bonds due to increased hydrogen bonding.
47
PHOTO OF PURINES
48
PHOTO OF PYRIMIDINES
49
Photo of Thymidine and Adenosine
50
Photo of Cytosine and Guanosine
51
What is the **function** of **histones**?
Crucial for DNA packaging and organization within eukaryotic cell nuclei ## Footnote Histones play a key role in the structural organization of DNA.
52
Describe the **structure** of histones.
Small, positively charged proteins with a globular domain and a flexible, positively charged tail ## Footnote This structure allows histones to interact effectively with negatively charged DNA.
53
What forms the **nucleosome**?
DNA wraps around histone octamers ## Footnote Nucleosomes are the basic units of chromatin structure.
54
Name the **core histones** that form the nucleosome core.
* H2A * H2B * H3 * H4 ## Footnote These core histones are essential for the structural integrity of nucleosomes.
55
What are **linker histones**?
* H1 * H5 ## Footnote Linker histones bind to linker DNA between nucleosomes.
56
How do **histone modifications** influence gene expression?
Modifications like acetylation and methylation influence gene expression and chromatin structure ## Footnote These modifications are part of epigenetic regulation.
57
What happens during **histone acetylation**?
Acetyl group attaches, masking (+) lysine charge on histone → Decreased binding with (-) DNA + Free DNA ## Footnote This process often increases DNA expression.
58
What occurs during **histone deacetylation**?
Removes acetyl group, revealing (+) lysine charge + increased binding with (-) DNA ## Footnote This process often leads to decreased accessibility of DNA.
59
Where is **histone acetylation** often found?
In euchromatin where DNA is more accessible ## Footnote This increased accessibility is due to binding with positively charged histones.
60
Where is **histone deacetylation** often found?
In heterochromatin where DNA is less accessible ## Footnote This decreased accessibility is due to binding with positively charged histones.
61
Photo of Histones
62
What is **chromatin** composed of?
* DNA * Histone proteins * Other structural proteins ## Footnote Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
63
How does DNA interact with **histones**?
DNA wraps around histones due to **electrostatic attractions** ## Footnote The negatively charged phosphodiester DNA backbone is attracted to positively charged histone lysine residues.
64
Describe the structure of **euchromatin**.
* Loosely packed * Active chromatin ## Footnote Contains actively transcribed genes and is involved in regular cellular activities.
65
What is the composition of **euchromatin**?
* Contains actively transcribed genes ## Footnote Involved in regular cellular activities.
66
What is the structure of **heterochromatin**?
* Densely packed * Inactive chromatin ## Footnote Often contains inactive or silenced genes.
67
What is the function of **heterochromatin**?
* Associated with structural functions * Prevents access to transcriptional machinery ## Footnote Often contains inactive or silenced genes.
68
What effect does **methylated DNA** have on gene expression?
* Silences gene expression * Hinders access of transcriptional machinery ## Footnote Methylated DNA can be thought of as 'Muted DNA'.
69
What is **histone acetylation** catalyzed by?
Histone acetyltransferase (HAT) ## Footnote It adds negatively charged acetyl groups to positively charged lysine residues on histone side chains.
70
What is the result of **histone acetylation** on chromatin structure?
* Loosens chromatin * Increases accessibility * Increases transcription ## Footnote The negatively charged phosphodiester DNA backbone repels due to added acetyl groups.
71
What is **chromatin** composed of?
* DNA * Histone proteins * Other structural proteins ## Footnote Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
72
How does DNA interact with **histones**?
DNA wraps around histones due to **electrostatic attractions** ## Footnote The negatively charged phosphodiester DNA backbone is attracted to positively charged histone lysine residues.
73
Describe the structure of **euchromatin**.
* Loosely packed * Active chromatin ## Footnote Contains actively transcribed genes and is involved in regular cellular activities.
74
What is the composition of **euchromatin**?
* Contains actively transcribed genes ## Footnote Involved in regular cellular activities.
75
What is the structure of **heterochromatin**?
* Densely packed * Inactive chromatin ## Footnote Often contains inactive or silenced genes.
76
What is the function of **heterochromatin**?
* Associated with structural functions * Prevents access to transcriptional machinery ## Footnote Often contains inactive or silenced genes.
77
What effect does **methylated DNA** have on gene expression?
* Silences gene expression * Hinders access of transcriptional machinery ## Footnote Methylated DNA can be thought of as 'Muted DNA'.
78
What is **histone acetylation** catalyzed by?
Histone acetyltransferase (HAT) ## Footnote It adds negatively charged acetyl groups to positively charged lysine residues on histone side chains.
79
What is the result of **histone acetylation** on chromatin structure?
* Loosens chromatin * Increases accessibility * Increases transcription ## Footnote The negatively charged phosphodiester DNA backbone repels due to added acetyl groups.
80
What is **Histone Deacetylation**?
* Enzymatic removal of acetyl groups from histone proteins * Catalyzed by histone deacetylases (HDACs) ## Footnote This process impacts chromatin structure and gene expression.
81
What is the **impact of Histone Deacetylation** on chromatin?
* Induces condensation of chromatin structure * Tighter winding restricts DNA accessibility ## Footnote This condensation affects transcriptional activity and gene regulation.
82
What is the **transcriptional effect** of Histone Deacetylation?
* Generally associated with gene repression * Inhibits transcriptional activity ## Footnote Contributes to the dynamic regulation of cellular processes through epigenetic control.
83
When does **DNA replication** occur?
Once every cell generation, during the S phase ## Footnote This ensures that all biological DNA is synthesized for cell division.
84
What is the direction of **DNA synthesis** during replication?
5' to 3' end using dNTPs (Deoxy NucleoTide Phosphates) ## Footnote This synthesis is complementary and anti-parallel to unwound DNA.
85
What is the **Origin of Replication**?
* Specific sites on a DNA molecule where replication initiates * Serve as starting points for replication machinery ## Footnote Recognized by initiator proteins that unwind the double helix.
86
How many **origins of replication** do eukaryotic chromosomes have?
Multiple origins ## Footnote Replication begins bidirectionally from these points.
87
How many **origins of replication** do prokaryotic chromosomes have?
Single origin ## Footnote Replication proceeds bidirectionally, forming two replication forks.
88
What is the **leading strand** in DNA replication?
* One of the two strands being replicated * Synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction ## Footnote DNA polymerase synthesizes it at the replication fork.
89
What initiates the synthesis of the **leading strand**?
Begins at the replication fork, unwound by helicase ## Footnote The 3' to 5' strand acts as the template for synthesis.
90
What role does **primase** play in DNA replication?
Synthesizes a short RNA primer ## Footnote This primer serves as the starting point for DNA polymerase to add nucleotides.
91
What is the function of **Helicase** in DNA replication?
Unwinds the double-stranded DNA at replication forks ## Footnote Utilizes energy from ATP hydrolysis to break hydrogen bonds between complementary bases.
92
What does **Helicase** create during DNA replication?
Two separate DNA strands ## Footnote Provides single-stranded templates for replication.
93
What is the **Origin of Replication**?
The site where DNA replication begins ## Footnote Involves unwinding of the DNA double helix.
94
What is the role of **Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins**?
* Prevent premature reannealing of separated DNA strands * Facilitate the action of DNA polymerase * Enhance the efficiency and accuracy of DNA synthesis ## Footnote Provide a stable template for DNA synthesis.
95
List the steps involved in DNA replication.
* Unwinding of DNA double helix * Stabilization of unwound template strands * Synthesis of RNA primers * Synthesis of DNA * Removal of RNA primers * Replacement of RNA with DNA * Joining of Okazaki fragments * Removal of positive supercoils ahead of advancing replication forks * Synthesis of telomeres ## Footnote These steps ensure accurate DNA replication.
96
What is the function of **DNA Gyrase (Topoisomerase)**?
* Relieving torsional strain during DNA replication * Inducing negative supercoiling in bacterial DNA * Facilitating unwinding of the DNA double helix ## Footnote Important for processes like replication and transcription.
97
What is the role of **Primase** in DNA replication?
Synthesis of RNA primers ## Footnote RNA primers are necessary for DNA polymerase to initiate DNA synthesis.
98
What does **DNA polymerase III** do?
Synthesizes new DNA strands ## Footnote Works in the 5' to 3' direction.
99
What is the function of **DNA polymerase I**?
* 5' - 3' exonuclease activity * Removal of RNA primers * Replacement of RNA with DNA ## Footnote Plays a crucial role in DNA replication and repair.
100
What is the role of **DNA ligase**?
Joins Okazaki fragments ## Footnote Essential for creating a continuous DNA strand.
101
What is the function of **Telomerase**?
Synthesis of telomeres ## Footnote One per chromosome, important for chromosome stability.
102
Photo of DNA ORIGIN REPLICATION
103
What is the function of **Primase** in DNA replication?
Synthesizes RNA primers that are complementary to unwound DNA ## Footnote RNA primers act as a template for future DNA fragments to bind from 5' to 3'.
104
What does **DNA Polymerase III** do during DNA replication?
* Finds RNA primer and synthesizes nucleotides from 5' to 3' * Proofreads via 3'→5' exonuclease activity * Cannot repair; No 5'→3' exonuclease activity * Synthesized continuously: leading strand * Synthesized discontinuously: lagging strand forming Okazaki fragments ## Footnote DNA Polymerase III is crucial for synthesizing new DNA strands.
105
What is the role of **DNA Polymerase I** in DNA replication?
* Replaces RNA primers with DNA * Connects Okazaki fragments * Proofreads via 3'→5' exonuclease activity * Repairs via 5'→3' exonuclease activity ## Footnote DNA Polymerase I plays a key role in finalizing the DNA strand.
106
How is the **leading strand** synthesized during DNA replication?
Continuously in the 5' to 3' direction by DNA polymerase ## Footnote This allows for a smooth and continuous synthesis of DNA.
107
What is the process of synthesizing the **lagging strand** in DNA replication?
Synthesized discontinuously, forming Okazaki fragments ## Footnote Each Okazaki fragment is initiated by an RNA primer synthesized by Primase.
108
What is the function of **helicases** in DNA replication?
Unwind the parental double helix ## Footnote This unwinding is essential for allowing DNA polymerases to access the template strands.
109
What is the overall direction of DNA replication?
5' to 3' direction ## Footnote This directionality is crucial for the synthesis of new DNA strands.
110
What enzyme joins the **Okazaki fragments** during DNA replication?
DNA ligase ## Footnote DNA ligase connects the fragments to create a continuous DNA strand.
111
DNA replication photo
112
What is the function of **DNA Ligase**?
* Seals nicks * Joins discontinuous DNA fragments * Joins Okazaki fragments during replication * Vital in DNA repair processes ## Footnote DNA Ligase is essential for maintaining the overall integrity of the DNA molecule.
113
In **prokaryotic DNA replication**, what is the shape of the DNA?
Circular ## Footnote Prokaryotic DNA is typically small and circular.
114
In **eukaryotic DNA replication**, how many origins of replication are there?
Multiple ## Footnote Eukaryotic DNA is long and linear, requiring multiple origins for efficient replication.
115
What enzyme synthesizes RNA primers in **prokaryotes**?
RNA primase ## Footnote RNA primers are necessary for DNA polymerases to initiate DNA synthesis.
116
Name the **DNA polymerases** involved in prokaryotic DNA replication.
* DNA polymerase III * DNA polymerase I ## Footnote DNA polymerase III is primarily responsible for DNA synthesis, while DNA polymerase I is involved in primer removal and gap filling.
117
What is the role of **telomeres**?
* Region of repetitive sequences at chromosome ends * Shorten after many replication rounds ## Footnote Telomeres protect linear chromosomes from degradation during replication.
118
What is the function of **telomerase**?
* Catalyzes telomere lengthening * Protects DNA from loss during replication * Includes RNA molecule as template ## Footnote Telomerase is crucial for maintaining telomere length, especially in stem cells and cancer cells.
119
What is the function of **RNase H** in eukaryotic DNA replication?
Removes RNA primers ## Footnote RNase H plays a critical role in replacing RNA primers with DNA during replication.
120
What are the **DNA polymerases** involved in eukaryotic DNA replication?
* DNA polymerase α * DNA polymerase δ * DNA polymerase ε * DNA polymerase β * DNA polymerase γ ## Footnote Each polymerase has specific roles in DNA synthesis and repair in eukaryotic cells.
121
What is the primary role of **proofreading** in DNA replication?
Ensures accuracy of DNA synthesis ## Footnote Proofreading is performed by DNA polymerases to correct errors during replication.
122
DNA REPLICATION PROKARYOTES VS EUKARYOTES
123
What is a **telomere**?
A region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome ## Footnote Telomeres protect the ends of chromosomes from deterioration.
124
What is the basic unit of life known as?
The **cell** ## Footnote Cells are the smallest structural and functional units of living organisms.
125
What is the function of a **centrosome**?
Organizes microtubules and is involved in cell division ## Footnote Centrosomes play a crucial role in the process of mitosis.
126
Which nitrogenous base is represented by **guanine**?
A purine base found in DNA and RNA ## Footnote Guanine pairs with cytosine in DNA.
127
Which nitrogenous base is represented by **adenine**?
A purine base found in DNA and RNA ## Footnote Adenine pairs with thymine in DNA.
128
What is a **chromosome**?
A structure made of DNA and proteins that contains genetic information ## Footnote Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
129
Which nitrogenous base is represented by **cytosine**?
A pyrimidine base found in DNA and RNA ## Footnote Cytosine pairs with guanine in DNA.
130
Which nitrogenous base is represented by **thymine**?
A pyrimidine base found only in DNA ## Footnote Thymine pairs with adenine in DNA.
131
What does **DNA** stand for?
Deoxyribonucleic acid ## Footnote DNA carries the genetic instructions for life.
132
What are the three models of **DNA replication**?
* Conservative * Semiconservative * Dispersive ## Footnote These models describe how DNA strands are copied during replication.
133
What is the term for the original DNA strands in replication?
**Parental DNA** ## Footnote Parental DNA serves as a template for the synthesis of new strands.
134
Fill in the blank: **Replication** is the process by which DNA is _______.
copied ## Footnote DNA replication is essential for cell division.
135
Photo of TELOMERE
136
Models of REPLICATION
137
What does the **Central Dogma** describe?
The flow of genetic information: DNA → RNA → Protein ## Footnote This process involves transcription and translation.
138
Where does **transcription** occur?
In the nucleus ## Footnote Transcription is carried out by RNA polymerase.
139
Where does **translation** occur?
In the cytoplasm ## Footnote Translation is performed by ribosomes.
140
What is the role of **RNA polymerase**?
To transcribe DNA into RNA ## Footnote This process occurs in the nucleus.
141
What is a **codon**?
A triplet of nucleotides encoding 1 amino acid ## Footnote Codons are part of the genetic code.
142
List the four key characteristics of the **triplet code**.
* Unambiguous * Continuous * Universal * Degenerate/Redundant ## Footnote These characteristics define how codons function in genetic coding.
143
What does **unambiguous** mean in the context of the triplet code?
3 nucleotides → 1 codon → 1 amino acid ## Footnote Each codon specifies a single amino acid.
144
What does **continuous** mean regarding codons?
Codons follow one after another; no nucleotides in between ## Footnote This ensures a clear reading frame during translation.
145
What does **universal** mean in the context of the triplet code?
Used by all known organisms except mitochondria and a few others ## Footnote This indicates the widespread nature of the genetic code.
146
What does **degenerate/redundant** mean in the context of the triplet code?
1 amino acid may be coded by multiple codes ## Footnote An example is the STOP signal in protein synthesis.
147
Photo of Central Dogma of DNA
148
What are **Post-Translational Modifications**?
* Protein modifications through addition of functional groups * Covalent bonds or cleavage to activate, inactivate, or enhance function ## Footnote These modifications are crucial for regulating protein function and activity.
149
Define **Proteolysis**.
* Enzymatic cleavage of proteins * Generates functional protein fragments or regulates activity ## Footnote It is a key process in the activation and regulation of proteins.
150
What is the purpose of **Phosphorylation**?
* Regulates protein activity * Cellular signaling * Enzyme function ## Footnote Phosphorylation is catalyzed by kinases and is vital for many cellular processes.
151
What does **Glycosylation** involve?
* Addition of sugar molecules * Enhances stability and function ## Footnote It influences protein folding, stability, and interactions.
152
What is the role of **Ubiquitination**?
* Attachment of ubiquitin * Marks proteins for degradation ## Footnote This process regulates protein levels and various cellular processes.
153
Define **mutation**.
* Any change in sequence of DNA base pairs * Permanent and often arise by chance ## Footnote Mutations can be caused by radiation, chemicals, or replication errors.
154
How many DNA sequence damaging events occur in each cell every day?
Between 1000 and 1,000,000 ## Footnote This highlights the frequency of potential mutations in cellular processes.
155
What is an **Advantageous Mutation**?
* Results in a benefit in the fitness of an organism ## Footnote Such mutations can enhance survival and reproduction.
156
What is a **Deleterious Mutation**?
* Loss of one or several nucleotides from the DNA sequence * Results in harmful effects on the fitness of an organism ## Footnote Example: Phenylketonuria, an inborn error of metabolism.
157
List examples of **types of mutations**.
* Random * Translation/transcription error * Base substitution * Inversion * Addition/insertion * Deletion * Translocation * Base mispairing ## Footnote These mutations can affect genetic information and protein synthesis.
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