1
Q
define Ecology
A
study of relationships between living organisms and their physical environment
2
Q
Coping mechanism is the culmination of what 3 elements?
A
(1) Morphology + (2) Physiology + (3) Behaviour
3
Q
define Behaviour
A
part of how organisms respond to the biotic & abiotic environment
4
Q
effect of behaviour on fitness is also dependent on?
A
morphology & physiology
5
Q
define fitness
A
an individual’s relative contribution to the next generation’s gene pool
6
Q
Natural selection acts on behaviour, so many behaviours are ?
A
adaptive
7
Q
behaviour is ecologically or evolutionarily significant?
A
both
8
Q
why is behaviour ecologically significant?
A
behaviour:
Is a link between individuals & their environment
Affects demographics (population levels outcomes)
Affects interactions among species (community-level outcomes)
9
Q
why is behaviour evolutionarily significant?
A
Behaviour:
Has some genetic basis (think nature vs. nurture)
Affects fitness
Can be selected (benefits > costs)
10
Q
3 key facets of behaviour
A
Obtain food
Avoid becoming food
Reproduce
11
Q
Foraging strategies are linked with?
A
morphology & physiology
12
Q
Huge variety of foraging strategies, defined by?
A
What they eat
How they get it: ambush vs. active
Diet breadth: specialist → generalist
13
Q
obtaining food is random or non-random?
A
ALWAYS non-random
14
Q
foraging theories
A
Optimal foraging theory
Marginal value theorem
15
Q
Optimal foraging theory predicts that?
A
Predicts foragers should maximise net rate of food (=energy) intake
Focuses on efficiency of energy gain
16
Q
Marginal value theorem predicts that?
A
Predicts that foragers should leave food patches when [capture/harvest rate at patch] < [average capture/harvest rate]
17
Q
Optimal foraging theory models?
A
which food items to eat in a non-depleting environment
18
Q
Marginal value theorem models?
A
when to leave a food patch in a depleting environment
19
Q
Giving up Densities (GUDs) =?
A
GUDs = the remaining quantity of food when a forager decides to leave a patch.
20
Q
Giving up Densities (GUDs) can be used to experimentally test what?
A
different foraging theories in different landscapes.
21
Q
Foraging strategies to be linked to?
A
predator avoidance strategies
A trade-off between food and fear
22
Q
ultimate fitness cost?
A
being eaten
23
Q
Strategies to decrease predation risk
A
Run away
Group
Hide (e.g. crypsis)
Act costly (act dangerous, mimic unpalatable or toxic organisms)
Be costly (e.g. sequester toxic compounds, have spines)
Feed in safe places or times (e.g. vegetation cover, new moon)
24
Q
costs to anti-predator strategies:
A
Feeding near vegetation cover: missed opportunities to forage elsewhere?
Grouping: competition for food, social aggression?
25
For anti-predator strategies to evolve, we need?
benefits > costs
26
2 elements of reproduction behaviours
Courtship & mating behaviour
Parental care
27
is courtship and mating behaviour random? what is the result?
yes, resulting in non-random offspring
28
Courtship & mating sexual selection inolves 2 behaviours:
Male-male competition (Intrasexual selection)
Female choice (intersexual selection)
29
Intrasexual selection leads to
competition (often male-male) → sexual dimorphism (e.g. hefty vs. slight)
30
Intersexual selection leads to
mate choice (often by female) → sexual dimorphism (e.g. flashy vs. plain)
31
Parental care benefits
survival & growth of offspring (= fitness)
32
parental care costs
missed opportunities (to reproduce again)
33
Properties of populations include:
Number of individuals or population size
Area they occupy
Age structure
Sex ratio
34
Open vs closed population
Open: individuals move in and out of the populations and migrants are likely
Closed: no emigration or immigration
35
describe open populations
individuals move in and out of the populations and migrants are likely
36
describe closed populations
no emigration or immigration
37
Variables which drive changes in population size
Birth
Death
Emigration (number leaving population)
Immigration (number entering population)
Growth (individual)
Age at maturity
Sex ratio
38
immigration vs emigration
Emigration (number leaving population)
Immigration (number entering population)
39
how does age at maturity impact population size?
Impacts fecundity (probability of giving birth) and survival
Imbalanced initial age structure → age and number cycles
40
what is fecundity? (define)
probability of giving birth
41
Life tables show?
survivorship probability at each age
42
where Nt = number of individuals in the population at time t, N(t+1) = ?
Nt + Births – Deaths + immigrants - emigrants
43
Estimating population size with Mark-release-recapture (MRR) estimates what using what?
the total population size from a sample proportion of a mobile species
Uses the proportion of recaptures to estimate whole population size
44
Mark-release-recapture (MRR) method of estimating population size requires what assumptions?
Closed population (i.e. no immigration, no emigration)
All individuals equally likely to be marked
Marked individuals do not lose their mark
45
Mark-release-recapture (MRR) method of estimating population size requires assumptions -- are these easy to satisfy?
no -- hard to satisfy
46
Mark-release-recapture (MRR)
estimated population size = ?
(# marked) x (# total recaptures) / (# recaptures that were marked)
47
Population viability analysis (PVA) model what? give examples/manifestations of this
population dynamics over time:
How changes to the ecosystem will affect the probability of the population surviving? (e.g., habitat loss, foxes, changes in mortality)
How these changes interact?
How these changes interact during one or many bad years? (e.g., drought)
48
Population viability analysis (PVA) uses what data?
basic population data
49
T/F: Population viability analysis (PVA) includes environmental variation in these values
true
50
T/F: Population viability analysis (PVA) can change values to reflect human impact
true
51
Key information needed for Population viability analysis (PVA)
Population Size/Carrying Capacity (K)
Fecundity
Mortality: Adults and juveniles
Inter-annual variation in parameters
52
what are Metapopulations
Local populations, but individuals move
53
T/F: Demographic rates vary spatially in metapopulations
true
54
what varies in metapopulations?
Demographic rates vary spatially
55
in metapopulations, Large-scales dynamics dependent on ?
local demographics and connectivity
56
describe Glanville Fritillary butterfly (Melitaea cinxia) populations
Periodic local extinctions
Recolonisation from nearby populations
Metapopulation level extinction prevented
57
describe Mayfly (Callibaetis ferrugineus hageni) populations
Larval stages mature in local pools
Adults disperse between pools
Mortality variable from pool to pool
Some pools are sources (low mortality) while others are sinks (high mortality)
58
Extinction definition
loss of all populations of a species
59
Processes of chance that contribute to an extinction event
Genetic stochasticity (small populations)
Demographic stochasticity (random nature of births and deaths)
Environmental stochasticity (variability)
Catastrophes (cyclones, epidemics, fire)
Human impacts (habitat loss, fragmentation, over-exploitation, hunting, pollution, introduction of new pest species, other environmental changes; e.g., climate change)
60
define stochasticity
the inherently random and unpredictable nature of many biological processes
61
what is the general concept of what a species is
groups of natural populations that interbreed but do not / cannot with other groups (to form offspring that can reproduce)
62
Many ‘species’ hybridise -- can they produce viable offspring
yes, some can
63
species concepts
Phylogenetic species concept (differ in genetic / DNA profile)
Ecological species concept (differ in ecology)
Morphological species concept (defined on overall similarity in what a species looks like)
64
Phylogenetic species concept says species differ in?
genetic / DNA profile
65
Ecological species concept says species differ in?
ecology
66
Morphological species concept says species are defined by?
overall similarity in what a species looks like
67
dingoes can interbreed with domestic dogs and grey wolves but are considered a separate species - why?
they differ in morphology, ecology, and genetics
68
Limitations of the general species concept
Concept is hard to apply to asexual organisms
Concept cannot be applied to fossil taxa
Sometimes hard to reconcile with the range in form of particular species, e.g., dogs
69
the general species concept can be applied to asexual organisms -- T/F?
false
70
the general species concept can be applied to fossil taxa -- T/F?
false
71
Significance of the species concept
biodiversity conservation
72
what are the most commonly accepted types of biodiversity?
Species, genetic, community and landscape are the most commonly accepted types of biodiversity
73
Counting species requires knowledge of?
How much area to sample
What organisms to count
Time of day/season/weather
74
why does Time of day/season/weather impact species counting?
This may impact food/habitat availability or migration
75
Methods of counting species differ for different organisms. What are some methods?
Counts for large / conspicuous animals or plants
Traps for small / shy species – e.g., many insects
Cameras / remote sensors – e.g., for small vertebrates
Genetic methods (e.g., eDNA) for cryptic species
76
counting is used for what organisms?
larger animals/plants
77
traps are used for what organisms?
small/shy species
78
cameras/remote sensors are used for what organisms?
small vertebrates
79
genetic methods are used for what organisms?
cryptic species
80
Species diversity is a measure of?
the number of species (i.e., species richness) AND the numbers of individuals of these species
81
define species richness
a simple count (or estimate) of the number of different species in a sample
82
species richness varies with?
sample size
83
T/F: many indexes of species diversity are available
true (eg. Berger-Parker, Simpson’s) -- but the same index should be used to compare species diversity of different samples
84
3 types of species diversity
Local: Alpha (or α) diversity: the number of species within a particular area or habitat
Turnover: Beta (β) diversity: the difference in species between areas or habitats
Regional: Gamma (or γ) diversity: the number of species from all areas or habitats combined
85
what is alpha diversity
the number of species within a particular area or habitat
86
what is beta diversity
the difference in species between areas or habitats
87
what is gamma diversity
the number of species from all areas or habitats combined
88
Globally, how mnay species have been described and have a name?
1.5 – 1.82 million species
89
Estimated how many species total in the world? what are the predominant organisms?
Estimated 2.238 billion species total (mostly bacteria)
90
ecological interactions include flow of energy and matter between?
exchanges and flow of energy and matter within and between trophic levels
91
Ecological interactions can be described in terms of:
1. The effect (positive (+), negative (-) or neutral (0)
2. The closeness of the relationship between two organisms.
92
Symbiosis
Interactions between organisms that live together in close proximity, usually for a long period of time, with at least one organism benefiting from the association.
93
types of symbiosis
mutualism (+,+)
competition (-,-)
predation (+,-)
commensalism (+,0)
amensalism (-,0)
no interaction (0,0)
94
Obligate vs facultative mutualism
Obligate mutualism: partners can only survive together
Facultative mutualism: partners gain benefit from associating, but CAN survive on their own
95
Obligate mutualism
partners can only survive together
96
facultative mutualism
partners can survive on their own but benefit from the association
97
Competition types
Can be interspecies or intraspecies
98
Herbivory is a dominant ecological interaction. what does it impact?
populations, communities, and ecosystem processes
99
food chain arrows are in the direction of?
energy flow
100
trophic cascade arrows point up or down?
down (opposite to food chain)
101
what is the trophic cascade?
impact of predators on prey
102
why are food chains are usually short
Long food chains are unstable: neither the ENERGY needed to sustain them nor the STABILITY of the environment are reliable enough to maintain food chains with more than 5-6 links
103
Hypothesised reasons why food chains are usually short
Hypothesis 1: the energy hypothesis
Hypothesis 2: the dynamic stability hypothesis
104
Hypothesis 1 for why food chains are usually short:
the energy hypothesis energy -- loss between trophic levels
105
the energy hypothesis for why food chains are usually short predicts what?
energy loss between trophic levels cause food chains to be short
Prediction: High productivity ecosystems should have longer chains
106
Hypothesis 1 for why food chains are usually short:
the dynamic stability hypothesis
107
the dynamic stability hypothesis for why food chains are usually short predicts what?
Longer food chains less stable because fluctuations at low trophic levels magnify at high levels (Top predators more likely to go extinct ⇒ ↓ food chain)
Prediction: Predictable (stable) environments should have longer chains
108
T/F: Some experimental evidence supports both hypotheses as to why food chains are short
true
109
T/F: the 2 hypotheses as to why food chains are short are mutually exclusive
false
110
Community definition
Two or (usually) more species that occur together in space and time and whose members interact with each other as an ecological unit
111
Assemblages meaning
a group of species that live together with no assumptions made about how or whether they interact with each other
112
Stable communities maintain what?
consistent species richness & composition
113
New communities are often homogeneous in many parts of the world. what is the term for this
biotic homogenisation
114
biotic homogenisation
New communities are often homogeneous in many parts of the world
115
T/F: Change in species composition is the norm in nature
true
116
Change in species composition is the norm in nature. This is driven by ?
local colonisations and extinctions of species
117
Classic models of communities are underpinned by?
succession of species
118
T/F: Disturbances are a driver of species richness and community composition
true
119
Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
Species diversity is highest at moderate levels of ecological disturbance, such as fires, floods, or human activity
120
Species diversity is highest at what level of ecological disturbance? give examples
moderate
eg. fires, floods, or human activity
121
define community resilience
how long before a community returns to an “equilibrium” after disturbance
122
Early ideas of succession was related to? describe the process of succession using this example
forests: tree falls down, creating gap for light
Light unsuitable for certain species (esp. shade-tolerant), creates high quality environment for other species
This causes changes in species composition and abundance, growth rates in lower canopy and ground level strata
Dominant species in the system change over time.
Various biogeochemical processes associated with the presence of certain species also change
New dominant species move in
123
Types of succession
Primary succession
Secondary succession
124
primary succession environment description.
give example
Bare area without soil
e.g. sand-dune, bare rock
125
secondary succession environment description.
give example
In a habitat modified by other species
e.g. forest gaps, abandoned agricultural fields
126
Models of succession
Facilitation
Tolerance
Inhibition
127
Facilitation model of succession is where?
Early arriving species make environment more favourable for later species
128
Tolerance model of succession is where?
Neither negative nor positive interactions between early and late species
129
Inhibition model of succession is where?
Early species inhibit later species
130
Ecosystem productivity is controlled by?
efficiency of recycling as well as by energy available
131
Materials transported in the atmosphere include?
water, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur
132
Materials transported in the atmosphere are part of global or local cycles?
global
133
Materials transported in the soil include?
Phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium
134
Materials transported in the soil are part of global or local cycles?
local
135
what % of water on earth is in oceans
97%
136
what processes move water around the cycle
Convection, precipitation, transpiration and respiration
137
what % of water is inaccessible? where is it stored?
~ 3% of total water is relatively inaccessible, in icecaps, glaciers and as deep groundwater
138
Water behaves more like energy in local ecosystems -- why?
because it effectively flows through and is not recycled locally
139
Nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere and makes up what % in atmosphere?
78%
140
T/F: plants can absorb atmospheric nitrogen
false
Absorbed as ammonium or nitrate after fixation of nitrogen by symbiotic bacteria, or in soil solution
141
plants absorb nitrogen as?
ammonium or nitrate after fixation of nitrogen by symbiotic bacteria, or in soil solution
142
what convert nitrate back to gaseous nitrogen
Denitrifying bacteria
143
Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate into?
gaseous nitrogen
144
Denitrifying bacteria convert what into gasesous nitrogen?
nitrate
145
T/F: Electrical storms also fix nitrogen
true
146
Nitrogen becomes limiting if?
microbial activity is inhibited
147
Most carbon is located where?
locked up in earth’s rocks as carbonate (and also fossil fuels)
148
The most active pool of carbon is?
carbon dioxide
149
what % of the atmosphere is CO2
0.04% and increasing
150
T/F: Burning fossil fuels returns CO2 to the atmosphere faster than it can be cycled. what is the result?
true
contribution to global warming
151
give an example of how animals can regulate the carbon cycle
Eg. sea otters eat sea urchins which can impact sea urchin herbivory on kelp which performs photosynthesis
152
Phosphorus is essential to life -- T/F?
true
153
T/F: phosphorus is common in earth’s crust or in atmosphere
false
154
phosphorus is taken up by plants as? from where?
phosphate from sparingly soluble soil storage pool
155
what enhances phosphorus supply of plants?
Symbiosis between plant roots and mycorrhizal fungi
156
Two-thirds of mainland Australia is desert, soils are low in what elements?
nitrogen and phosphorus
157
T/F: Australian flora are well adapted to low P, and efficient at recycling phosphorus
true
158
Desert ecosystems are productive when?
productive in pulses when rain falls, or from utilisation of reserves (seeds, lignotubers) at other times
159
in deserts, Consumers must:
Adopt a ‘pulse and reserve’ pattern, e.g. grasshoppers, budgies, desert rodents
Eat reserves of other organisms, e.g. seed or wood-eaters; or
Adopt opportunistic feeding habits
160
T/F: Rainfall highly variable in deserts
true
161
what fraction of Australian mainland is desert?
2/3
162
what is Anthropocene
new geological era caused by humans
163
new geological era caused by humans
is called?
anthropocene
164
Contamination definition
the presence of a substance where it should not be or at concentrations above background
165
pollution definition
contamination that results in or can result in adverse biological effects to resident communities.
166
toxic input examples
Pesticides
Pharmaceuticals
Manufacturing
Industrial accidents
Chemical spills
Atmospheric pollution
Plastics
Nanoparticles
167
Bioaccummulation occurs when?
an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost
Accumulation occurs in body tissues
Particularly in higher predators at the top of food chains and webs
168
bioaccumulation and biomagnification occur where?
Accumulation occurs in body tissues
Particularly in higher predators at the top of food chains and webs
169
Biomagnification occurs when?
when there is an increase in concentration of the substance in tissues at higher tropic levels.
169
examples of substnaces that often bioaccumulate
Herbicides
Organochlorine insecticides)
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls, chlorinated organic compounds used as insulation in electrical equipment, e.g. transformers, coolants – very stable)
Heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium etc)
170
example of biomagnification
Eg. Inuit milk had 5 times the PCB levels (also toxaphene and chordane) in breast milk of mothers in southern Quebec in the mid 1980s
171
one example of biomagnification was where Inuit milk had 5 times the PCB levels (also toxaphene and chordane) in breast milk of mothers in southern Quebec in the mid 1980s. What happened to children born to women who ate PCB-contaminated fish?
they were exposed to PCBs in the uterus and had lower childhood growth rates
172
one example of biomagnification was where Inuit milk had 5 times the PCB levels (also toxaphene and chordane) in breast milk of mothers in southern Quebec in the mid 1980s. how did PCBs enter their milk?
Inuit consumption of sealife that has been contaminated by PCBs from global distillation and global fractionation
173
one example of biomagnification was where Inuit milk had 5 times the PCB levels (also toxaphene and chordane) in breast milk of mothers in southern Quebec in the mid 1980s. what solutions were put in place?
PCBs are now banned worldwide
Monitoring and regulation
174
primary drivers of diversity
habitat Fragment size and isolation
175
what factors are important when considering habitat loss and fragmentation
Edge effects are prevalent
Shape matters
Connectivity and corridors enhance landscapes
176
Classic effects of fragmentation
1. Biomass collapse
2. Irreversible shifts (‘ecological meltdown’)
177
one classic effect of fragmentation is biomass collapse. Where is rate of biomass loss greater?
near forest edges (i.e. small patches)
178
one classic effect of fragmentation is biomass collapse. There is a decline in above ground biomass after fragmentation (from subset of edge sites), including
1. High tree mortality
2. No recruitment of new trees
179
one classic effect of fragmentation is biomass collapse. why is rate of biomass loss greater near forest edges ?
Microclimatic factors (wind, hydrology) strongly affected on edges
Increase in woody vines (lianas) near edges doesn’t compensate for loss of trees
180
one classic effect of fragmentation is irreversible shifts (ecological meltdown) due to loss of predators and large animals. why is there such a loss of predators and large animals?
Small and medium islands do not support >75% of vertebrates from mainland and control sites; mostly large animals and predators lost
181
one classic effect of fragmentation is irreversible shifts (ecological meltdown) due to loss of predators and large animals. what vertebrates remain and what is their abundance?
Remaining vertebrates are small, insect or seed predators or herbivores
Tend to be hyperabundant
182
one classic effect of fragmentation is irreversible shifts (ecological meltdown) due to loss of predators and large animals. Remaining vertebrates are small, insect or seed predators or herbivores and tend to be hyperabundant. What does this result in? (hint: what happens to vegetation)
Trophic cascades
Densities of seedlings and saplings of canopy trees are severely reduced on herbivore-affected islands: forest cannot recover
183
Direction of change in 90% of physical and 80% of biological cases is consistent with relationships with what abiotic factor?
temperature
184
biological systems being monitored for climate change
polar bear behaviour
bird migration
krill stocks
grape harvests
spring flowering
185
nonbiological systems being monitored for climate change
variation in the freeze thaw pattern in tundra
glacier 'wastage'.
timing of peak stream flow
186
Expected and observed changes in animals and plants due to climate change
Range shifts (latitudinal or altitudinal)
Abundance changes
Change in growing season length
Earlier flowering, emergence of insects, migration and egg-laying in birds
Morphology shifts (e.g. body & egg sizes)
187
Expected and observed changes in hydrology and glaciers due to climate change
Glacier shrinkage
Permafrost thawing
Later freeze & earlier break up of river and lake ice
188
The Extinction Crisis – effect of the?
human footprint
189
Due to human activity, rate of extinction how much higher than background rates
10–100,000 times higher
190
normal background rates of extinction
1 species every few years
191
Australia has lost how many species in the last 200 years
~34
192
what % of Australia's mammals are extinct or threatened
>30%
193
“Critical Weight Range” (CWR) is between?
35 g to 5.5 kg
194
Conservation biology aims
1. To describe problems and understand processes
2. To predict impacts of threats
3. To develop solutions: undo the ‘human footprint’
4. Ultimately: stop more species / communities / ecological processes going extinct
195
Patterns and processes of extinction - 2 theories
The ‘Evil Quartet’ of extinction forces
‘HIPPO’ of extinction forces
196
The ‘Evil Quartet’ of extinction forces includes:
Alien species
Overhunting
Habitat loss
Co-extinction
197
alien species examples in Australia
weeds, bees, wasps, ants, feral rabbits/cattle/sheep/goats/etc
198
Methods of introduction of alien species
Deliberate introductions
Acclimatisation societies (comfort/familiarity)
Ornamentals
Agricultural
Domestics
Biological control
Human traffic
Trade routes
Ease of global travel
Poor quarantine
Native invaders
199
reasons for deliberate introduction of alien species
Acclimatisation societies (comfort/familiarity)
Ornamentals
Agricultural
Domestics
200
examples of human traffic introduction of alien species
Trade routes
Ease of global travel
Poor quarantine
201
Success rates for invasive species is predicted by?
the "tens" rule
202
the "tens" rule says what?
1 in 10 of the plant and animal species brought into a region will escape to appear in the wild
1 in 10 of those escaped species will become naturalised
1 in 10 of these will become invasive
203
Common characteristics of invasive species
Maximize or enable high reproduction
Enable great ecological dispersal
Enable species to be greatly ecologically flexible
204
impacts of alien species
Competition with or predation on naive local species
Alien predators have twice the impact of native ones
May result in threat/extinction of local species
Trophic cascade – impact on entire ecosystem
205
T/F: Alien predators have twice the impact of native ones
true
206
hunting purposes
to eat the animal as food (fishing, meat, etc)
to eliminate competition for food/resources
eg. kangaroos, wallabies
207
Major cause of species extinction
habitat loss
208
Island biogeographic theory suggests that?
reducing habitat area to 10% of its former extent will eventually cause about 50% of species dependent on natural habitat to disappear
209
Island biogeographic theory suggests that reducing habitat area to 10% of its former extent will eventually cause what % of species dependent on natural habitat to disappear?
~50%
210
Extinction debt reflects?
FUTURE ecological cost of CURRENT habitat destruction
Extinctions occur generations after fragmentation
211
Extinction debt reflects FUTURE/CURRENT ecological cost of FUTURE/CURRENT habitat destruction?
FUTURE ecological cost of CURRENT habitat destruction
Extinctions occur generations after fragmentation
212
Moderate habitat destruction is predicted to cause?
time-delayed but inevitable, deterministic extinctions
213
What does the HIPPO acronym stand for in the ‘HIPPO’ of extinction forces
Habitat destruction
Invasive species
Pollution
human over-Population
Over-harvesting
214
key difference between the Evil Quartet and HIPPO
human overpopulation is a key part of HIPPO that is absent in the Evil Quartet, and it underpins the other factors of HIPPO
215
Role of experimentation in conservation biology
Experiments are key to identifying processes driving extinction and allowing management and future predictions to be made
216
Role of modelling in conservation biology
Models of population dynamics are useful to predict impacts and to identify management options
217
examples of experiment types in conservation biology
Predation experiments (removal/supplementation)
Meta-analyses – towards a general pattern across experiments and studies
218
example of an model in conservation biology
Population Viability Analysis
Most effective at comparing management options
Minimum viable population (MVP) size
Data hungry process, but very helpful and effective
219
solutions other than experimenting and modelling in conservation biology
ecological solutions
integrated pest management
restoration ecology and rewilding
220
ecological solutions in conservation biology are based on evidence -- T/F?
true
221
ecological solutions in conservation biology address patterns or causes?
causal factors
222
why do we need a good ecological understanding for Integrated Pest management?
controlling one may benefit others when managing pests that have interrelationships
223
Ecological restoration is the process of ?
repairing damage caused by humans to the diversity and dynamics of indigenous ecosystems
224
ecological restoration goals
Restoring ecosystems to some pre-impact or reference state
Enhancing habitat quality
Restoring ecosystem functions via reintroductions
225
Bauxite mining restoration goals
Establish self-sustaining jarrah forest ecosystem
Vegetation community which is floristically and structurally similar to the nearby undisturbed forest
Faunal assemblage recolonising over time
226
Restoration Ecology and Rewilding examples
wildlife santuaries
Bauxite mining site restoration
BIOL1007
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