1
Q
Willemse - educational differentiation according to which indicators
A
- The first indicator for stratification will be the number of tracks in higher education institutions. Tracks refer to various educational paths across and within higher education institutions that are associated with different educational and occupational life chances- will be referred to as differentiation
- The second institutional characteristic in which educational systems may differ, is vocational specificity: the degree to which a system focuses on general or specific knowledge and skill attainment to prepare for a particular vocation. Highly stratified systems tend to put much value on vocational specificity- there is a unified system, a binary system and a diversified system
the 3rd indicator is the lack of standardisation eg budgets and curriculum
2
Q
unified educational systems
A
Willemse
, there is only one kind of institution that provides general tertiary education.
3
Q
diversified educational systems
A
Willemse- composed of ‘a mix of institutions that are stratified by prestige, resources, and selectivity both of faculty and students’. Usually, all institutions offer both vocational and general academic courses, which means that there is only little vocational specificity in the higher education system
4
Q
binary educational systems
A
Willemse- the difference between the first-tier and the second-tier institutions lies in the fact that the second-tier institutions provide a vocational focused education opposed to the first-tier institutions that deal with academic education only. These have high vocational specificity
5
Q
expected - Liberal welfare regimes mapped onto education
A
Willemse
high stratification
A basic level of educational provision is expected to be arranged by the government; other provision is largely left to the market and therefore,
while total expenditure on higher education is expected to be low, the share of private expenditure will probably be high.
Tuition fees differ according to the market, student loans are minimal and needs-tested and are probably heavily dependent on private aid
The minimal role of the government leads to little standardization, resulting in large quality differences between higher education institutions- hierarchy of educational tracks
6
Q
expected- Conservative welfare regimes mapped onto education
A
high stratification
tuition fees are low and government spending is relatively high.
Student loans and grants are expected to be moderate, since the family should be the first helping party.
high vocational specificity, standardization and strong hierarchy are expected in order to preserve status differences.
7
Q
expected- Social Democratic welfare regime - mapped onto education
A
low stratification
The market is crowded out by the state. therefore expect a generous system of student grants and loans, while tuition fees are kept low.
Public expenditure will be high and the share of private expenditure low. In view of the strong emphasis on solidarity and equality
we expect universal entitlements, strong standardization, and low vocational specificity and hierarchy.
8
Q
public expenditure and welfare state typology
A
- Public expenditures on higher education vary between 0.6% in Italy and 1.6% in Denmark and Finland. As expected, expenditures are, on average, the highest in the social democratic welfare states.
no systematic difference in public expenditure between the conservative and the liberal welfare states.
- In the liberal countries, public expenditure is not much bigger than private expenditure, but in the conservative countries public expenditure is more than four times as big as private expenditure.
9
Q
hIgher education enrolment and welfare state type
A
- Higher education- enrolment rates are the highest in the social democratic countries, where almost half of the eligible population is enrolled.
In the liberal countries the enrolment rate is considerably lower, but still higher than in the conservative countries, which have the lowest enrolment rates on average
10
Q
vocational specificity of welfare state types
A
, the liberal countries score the lowest: they all have a diversified system with no separate institutions for vocational education.
Half of the conservative and most of the social democratic countries have a binary system and, thus, high vocational specificity.
11
Q
standardisation and welfare state types
A
only four countries have a fully centralized system of higher education, two of which are social democratic countries. However, the other two social democratic countries, Denmark and Norway, have institutional autonomy and, thus, little standardization. This also applies to half of the liberal countries and half of the conservative countries.
12
Q
stratification of educational systems according to regime type
A
- the liberal countries turn out to have, on average, the least stratified system of higher education. This is mainly due to the fact that they have no separate vocational institutes.
The social democratic higher education systems are, on average, somewhat more stratified. But here the variation is very large. Sweden has the lowest score on the stratification index, while the Danish and Norwegian systems are among the most stratified. Not unexpectedly, the conservative welfare states, which put a lot of emphasis on maintaining status differentials, have the most stratified higher education systems
13
Q
Measuring educational poverty according to competences
A
- Absolute educational poverty would be defined by Competence Level I (of five), which corresponds to functional illiteracy
14
Q
German educational competence
A
- According to PISA 2000 this means empirically that measured in national or international perspective absolute educational poverty in terms of literacy amounts to 10 percent in Germany and to 6 percent in the OECD average. In mathematics and the sciences the results are similar
15
Q
diversity of individuals deemed educationally incompetent
A
o Almost 50 percent are born in Germany with parents also born there, and German is spoken at home.
o More than a third (36 percent) were born outside Germany.
o of the native born only 6 percent do not make it to Level I, of the foreign born 25 percent
o The educational poverty rate of children with parents of an unskilled background is 18 percent versus 3 percent for children of parents of the upper or lower ‘service classes’
16
Q
use of competency as measure of educational poverty
A
- Competences should be more revealing if we are interested in measuring economic prosperity, the innovation potentials of the economy and individual development beyond the dimension of economic success.
17
Q
missing diploma as a measure of educational poverty
A
- Since in Germany the premium is not on years of attendance but on holding a degree, getting a certificate, being uncertified (by the school or the dual system)seems to provide a hard and clear indicator for an ‘undersupply of educational resources’. Social reporting could build on this social fact. Poverty in the sense of ‘the uncertified’ in Germany can be found for about 10 percent of each school leaving cohort, mostly affecting children of foreign descent
Only rarely will employers themselves test applicants and check out the signals they receive from the education system.
18
Q
purpose of liberal education
A
developing cognitive capacity - focuses on traditional curriculum - ultimate goal is post-grad degree - can often be impractical such as study of dead languages like Latin/Greek
19
Q
UK focus on purpose of education
A
- Training - about practicality of knowledge - teaching skills that will be values in work force/society - vocational qualifications - UK often given it a low priority
o distinction between both is in practice more blurry - often combined in one bundle - both emphasise 3 R’s (reading, wRiting, aRithmetic)
20
Q
funding of education - control
A
- education spending primary determined by Westminster
- Compulsory education funded via general taxation - justified as a social investment - public good.
- Also have private tutoring etc.
21
Q
size of private Schools
A
- fee-charging private schools - 7% attend in 2008 - though regional variance - fewer in Scotland
22
Q
Thatcher’s changes to educational funding
A
1988 education act- more financing power to schools and introduced the system of Local Management of Schools, giving schools more autonomy and control over their budgets and management. allowed schools to opt out of LEA control - be grant-maintained from central gov instead
* Aimed to improve the quality of all schools - notion of rising tides lifts all boats - to reduce inequality
23
Q
Blair - funding of disadvantaged schools
A
- Launched the Excellence in Cities initiative, targeting resources and support at schools in disadvantaged areas to raise standards and improve educational outcomes.
24
Q
Blair- adult education
A
- 2001 skills for life strategy Aimed at improving literacy, numeracy, and language skills among adults in the UK. Introduced a range of initiatives and funding to support adult education and training in these areas.
25
New Labour's teacher expenditure
* education expenditure above OECD average by 2009 - boosted teacher numbers/salaries (up 20% in real terms) in Teach First scheme
, workforce increased very substantially - particularly FTE teaching assistants - 1997-2010 134,000 new staff
26
Blair - higher education
* Dearing report asked students to contribute more - 1998 means-tested tuition fees,
2006 variable fees capped at £3000,- uni was now viewed as a private not a public good
o higher education is neither compulsory nor universal…it is reasonable to ask those who gain private benefits to help fund it’
27
Blair - school building
* Building Schools for the Future (BSF) programme - aimed to renew school building stock in 15-20 years
28
increase in education funding under Blair *
Funding increase 64% from 1997 to 2007 in secondary schools, 49% for primary
29
coalition - growth of private provision
* 2011 education act- Emergence of ‘edu-Chains’ running Free Schools and Academies - profit-making companies
* since 2012 Education Funding Agency and growth of academies
30
coalition - higher education funding
* 2012 uni tuition capped at £9000
* Government has been less generous with funding for student living costs - By 2015–2016 the maximum grant was £3387 for students from house- holds with incomes of £25,000 or less, tapering off at £42,620. At the same time maintenance loans continued. Maintenance grants were again wholly replaced by a universally loans-based system in 2016.
31
coalition and funding of disadvantaged students
* Pupil Premium and Endowment Fund from coalition - funding to encourage low-income children to stay in education longer
* Subsidised school meals and FSM for low-income children - from 2014 all 5-8 year olds entitled to FSM
32
Pupil premium
In 2014–15, schools received £1,300 for each pupil aged between 5 and 11, and £935 for each pupil between 11 and 16, registered as eligible for free school meals at any point in the previous six years.’
- only 3% of school budget so ‘it can by no means be regarded as a panacea for the problem of wide socioeconomic attainment gaps’
33
Coalition and school building
* cancelled Labour’s Building Schools for the Future
- cancelled 715 new schemes - Gove justified by blaming Labours ‘needless bureaucracy’
34
coalition spending on education
* spending stabilized after rise under Labour - 2010-2014 primary school up 2%, secondary school down 6%
- primary school numbers were increasing under coalition (new cohort) - thus per capita spending in primary schools after fell 6%
35
education staffing under coalition
* staff picture of stability- Under the coalition, FTE teacher numbers increased by 2% to 2014, and FTE regular teaching assistants by 31%, additions of around 7,000 and 61,000 respectively’(less impressive than Labour)
* increase in teacher under coalition was less than the increase in pupils - primary class room sizes started to rise - peaked in 2015 at an average of 27 (though secondary school fell to 20.1)
36
stability of funding under coalition
* too much focus on stability - protected schools funding in CASH terms ‘implying a real terms decrease, in the face of rising pupil numbers and cost pressures’
37
coalition - higher education loan repayment
* In 2016, the UK repayment threshold was an annual income of £21,000, compared to median gross annual earnings for full-time employees of £27,600 for the year ending 5 April 2015. The repayment rate was 9% of income above £21,000.
* In 2015, the Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) estimated that full-time students in England would graduate with an average debt for tuition and maintenance combined of £44,035 (£29,838 in fee debt), compared to £24,754 (£11,807 in fee debt) if the 2012 changes had not occurred. The IFS also estimated that 73% of graduates would not repay their debt in full
38
effect of higher education fees on enrolment
* Australia had shown that increases in the rate of tuition, or variations in tuition between disciplines, had little effect on the propensity to participate or tendency to discriminate against low income-family students
* As the UK Higher Education Commission has stated: “students do not feel or act like consumers”. “The ‘buy now pay later’ nature of the money dilutes the effect of the market mechanism
39
coalition - higher education and student numbers
* For 2015–2016, the government deregulated its control of student numbers, so that HEIs were free to admit any number of qualified students into places financed by income-contingent tuition loans (Hillman, 2014). This allowed HEIs to expand their income at the rate of £9000 per student and take advantage of economies of scale. However, it also increased the long-term public cost of the funding system, especially as newly participating students were likely to repay the cost of tuition at below-average rates
40
devolution and higher education
* Scotland - No fees
* Welsh tuition grants- get some free money - its students studying anywhere in the UK can apply for grants of up to £5190.
* NI- max fee is 3805
41
Thatcher and improving free attendance at private schools
* 80s introduced state funded ‘assisted places’ for bright poor children to attend private schools - phased out under her and replaced by bursary schemes.
42
Thatcher- empowering parents on school choice
* League tables to inform choice
* In the 80s parents were allowed to express a preference over school
* Accompanied by diversity in schools- quasi market
* Idea parents will choose best school for students
43
effect of parent choice on education under Thatcher
o because schools could make admission choices the effect was that some better school were oversubscribed while bad schools failed to attract enough - because funding was based on pupil numbers this led to spiralling failures
44
student choice available under Thatcher
AS levels were introduced to widen ‘the choice of subject combinations available to A level students’
‘There should be an element of choice in the curriculum for the 4th and 5th years but the choice of options should not allow pupils to undertake a programme that is insufficiently broad or balanced’ (
45
Thatcher on national curriculum
The 1985 document stated: ‘There should be an element of choice in the curriculum for the 4th and 5th years but the choice of options should not allow pupils to undertake a programme that is insufficiently broad or balanced’ (s.66). The curriculum was to be designed so that ‘it is likely that 80–85 per cent of each pupil’s time needs to be devoted to subjects which are compulsory or liable to constrained choices’. There had been more prior to national curriculum – in 1970s secondary students were given lots of choice over curriculum
46
effect of national curriculum on school choice under Thatcher
‘the differences between schools that they might base that choice on would disappear because everyone would have to teach the same national curriculum’- the only basis to choose schools appeared to be public or independent
47
Blair increasing diversity of schools
Encouraged ‘faith based school’
* increased marketisation via Academies early 2000s - increased diversification of school type and increased parental choice
48
Blair empowering parents on choice
* added new focuses to league tables eg well-being
* Diversity offered the opportunity for schools to specialise on the grounds again that it ‘means increased choice for parents and pupils’. School choice had changed from being based on a decision (resources permitting) between independent and public schools, to one between new kinds of public schools and the independent sector.
49
grant maintained schools under Thatcher
* In 1992, choice was extended through the creation of grant-maintained schools that opened ‘the way to greater variety in education’ (‘introduction’). New schools gave parents an additional choice with ‘the right of parents to choose, in a secret ballot, whether their child’s school should apply to transfer out of the control of the LEA and become grant-maintained’
50
grant maintained schools under Blair
Blair's government introduced legislation that required grant-maintained schools to return to local authority control or convert to other types of schools, such as foundation schools or community schools.
51
grant maintained school
Thatcher- Instead of being managed and financed by the local education authority (LEA), grant-maintained schools had greater autonomy over their budgets, staffing, curriculum, and admissions policies. They were funded directly by central government grants rather than through local authorities.
52
Blair and school meal choice
* There was the possibility of greater choice over school meals provided they met ‘minimum nutritional standards’
53
grammar schools under major
* The 1996 education document continued to emphasise choice, giving schools greater powers to select their pupils, ‘extending choice and diversity by encouraging new grammar schools, giving schools more power to select pupils, and developing the specialist schools programme’
54
How choice of schools was increased under Thatcher through change to enrolment policy
Open Enrollment: Thatcher's government introduced policies to promote open enrollment, allowing parents to apply for their children to attend schools outside their local catchment area. This gave parents more options in choosing a school that best suited their preferences, such as academic standards, ethos, or extracurricular activities.
55
parent choice in vocational training under Thatcher
Thatcher's government established City Technology Colleges, which were independent state-funded schools aimed at providing high-quality technical and vocational education. Parents could choose to send their children to these specialized schools if they were interested in pursuing a more practical or vocational-oriented curriculum.
56
Local authorities and parent choice under Blair
* 2005- Local authorities had to ‘work with the newly-created Schools Commissioner to ensure more choice, greater diversity and better access for disadvantaged groups to good schools in every area’
57
Parent choice for most disadvantaged under Blair
provision of ‘dedicated choice advisers to help the least well-off parents to exercise their choices’
58
technology and parent choice under Blair
* Technology allowed parents to make ‘more informed choices about schools in their area and make representations to the local authority about provision’ so parents could not only choose between schools, but also challenge local authorities where they believed provision was not up to standard.
59
Trust schools
introduced in England under the Labour government
type of foundation school that forms a charitable trust with an external partner, such as a business, university, or educational charity. This partnership allows the trust to have a greater influence over the school's governance, curriculum, and management- increased autonomy over their admissions policies, curriculum, and staffing.
have some flexibility in setting their own admissions policies, but they must comply with the School Admissions Code
Trust schools remain accountable to the Department for Education (DfE) and are subject to regular inspections by Ofsted, the Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills. However, the trust itself plays a significant role in holding the school to account for its performance.
60
diversity and choice
greener and Powell
- In education, choice is meant to lead to education providers becoming more diverse, which in turn is meant to lead to greater choice. This argument appears circular, with choice creating diversity, and diversity creating choice, with the rather counter-intuitive suggestion that parents choose schools on the basis of their type rather than on the basis of their exam results or OFSTED reports.
61
free schools
Coalition
non-profit, independent schools that are funded by the government but are not controlled by local authorities.
o Free schools have significant autonomy over their curriculum, teaching methods, staffing, and school management. This autonomy is intended to allow schools to innovate and respond more effectively to the needs of their students and communities
Free schools are responsible for their own admissions process and criteria. They are required to comply with the School Admissions Code, but they have flexibility in setting their own admissions policies, which may include prioritizing certain criteria such as proximity to the school or faith affiliation.
o Free schools are often established in response to parental demand or specific community needs.
Free schools are accountable to the Secretary of State for Education and the Education Funding Agency (EFA) for their performance and compliance with legal requirements. They are subject to regular inspections by Ofsted, the government's education watchdog.
62
Devolution and school league tables
* In non-England county, no official performance tables - 2000 Standards in Scotland’s Schools Act ‘gave greater powers to local authorities in relation to restrict choice by refusing ‘placing requests’’
* Post-devolution all but England have abolished the publication of exam results in league tables
63
how parent choice works in England
o - all parents rank 3-6 schools
o 82% offered first choice
o only 39% of pupils put their nearest school as their first choice
o 50% end up attending nearest school
o oversubscribed places are often allocated on geographical (though also on basis of siblings or attending feeder school
64
Policy measures to improve efficacy of parent choice in education
policy measures to improve the efficacy of choice: 1. increased publishing of info 2. low income families entitled to free transport to nearest 3 schools 3. Funding follows students
65
parent choice in Scotland
o choice permitted but not encouraged (around 13% exercise this - 80% granted)
66
difference between Scotland and England satisfaction
* survey evidence from Scotland and England - finds parents in England tend to be ‘more cynical, fatalistic and disempowered’ vs Scottish parents
* most people want choice but want it for instrumental reasons (avoid negative outcomes for their children)
* Scottish system seems preferable but might not be applicable to England now due to raised expectations
67
choice does not = empowerment
o often hard for parents to distinguish in their heads the value they place on the process of choosing vs the outcomes
o Scottish parents place less value on choice and are more content with their catchment area school
Attitudes can of course be shaped by expectations. However this also has important implications- 6x more likely to be disappointed by an unsuccessful application
o amount of choice in England surpasses what parents actually desire
o increases uncertainty
68
original school system
butler act 1944- aimed to provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 15 and introduced the tripartite system of secondary education
o Grammar Schools: These schools focused on academic education and were intended for students who passed the 11+ exam.
o Technical Schools: These schools provided vocational and technical education for students interested in skilled trades and crafts.
o Secondary Modern Schools: These schools offered a general education curriculum for students who did not pass the 11+ exam or were not selected for grammar or technical schools.
69
School monitoring
* Ofsted reports are regular and publicly available
* Quality Assurance Agency QAA for higher education - market regulator in England
70
centralisation of higher education
* The principles of autonomy and freedom in British universities are combined with the centralized British state, with its normalizing Treasury-driven polity and uniform systems, to an extent that seems paradoxical, though it is typical of UK governance. The universities are not seen as outside the state, as is the case with their US counterparts, not even Oxford and Cambridge, which are closest in form to the American Ivy League. Universities occupy a place in British life analogous to the national broadcaster, the BBC—both are public institutions and institutions of the middle class, formally independent while relying on a sympathetic government.
71
increased university autonomy under Thatcher
* Removed 30 polytechnics from LA control 1988 - granted them university status 1992
* Funding shifted to a per capita basis - incentivising universities to offer more places
72
education as important under Thatcher
* 1983 - key policy legacy is that young people are not entitled to claim benefits - eg. Brown – have to stay in school
73
Blair and early years education
* the Early Years Free Entitlement (EYFE) scheme 2004. Under the EYFE scheme, eligible children are entitled to 15 hours of funded early education or childcare per week, which is provided by a range of approved childcare providers, including nurseries, preschools, and childminders.
sure start- brought together professionals from different sectors, including health, education, social services, and community organizations, to provide integrated support and interventions for families. This holistic approach aimed to address the complex needs of families living in disadvantaged areas and promote positive outcomes for children and parents+ mainly focused on most disadvantaged
74
Labour desire to increase university attendance
* 1997 Dearing Report - recommended targeting 1/3rd of young people to attend university - Labour committed to a participation rate of 50% of 18-30 year olds by 2010
75
quality control in schooling by Labour
o ‘Beacon schools’ - well performing schools identified and promoted as role models - while ‘special measures’ schools to improve failing schools
* Extra Mile project - designed to help struggling schools ‘implement the successful practices of other schools that appeared to ‘buck the trend’ with highly disadvantaged intakes’
76
schools standards and framework act
1998
o Abolished assisted places
o Reduced class size
o Tighter regulation of curriculum - focus on ICT - introduced citizenship teaching
77
importance of education promoted by New labour
* 1997 as chancellor said ‘no option to stay at home in bed watching television’- have to stay in school
78
school responsible for more than just education under New Labour
* The Children’s Plan of 2007 - emphasised school’s responsibility not just for child’s cognitive development but also heath, well-being etc.
* Social Exclusion Unit 1998 - focused on tacking persistent truancy - introduction of parenting contracts
79
success of education under New Labour - attainment and equality
* 62% achieving expected level a primary school 1997 to 78% 2007
o more people achieving 5 grades A*-C at GCSE
* gap between attainment of those on free schools meals and not in English fell from 26pp to 21pp
80
national strategies under labour
* Every Child a Reader, Every Child a Writer and Every Child Counts - National Strategy so still had centralisation
o two-year Narrowing the Gap research and development programme in 2007
81
importance of education under Cameron
- 2015 raise the participation age- Aimed at ensuring that all young people have access to education and training opportunities up to the age of 18.- School leaving age raised to 18
82
early education under Coalition
* 2012 LAs had to provide places for 15 hours (and later 30) all 3-4 years olds and some disadvantaged two year olds.
83
school independence under coalition
2011 education act
o All schools have option to become academies free from la control, although no control over assessments
o Free schools given even more freedom
o Allowed grammar schools to expand for first time since 1964
* LAs lost veto over whether a schools got to be an academy
* new academies and free schools including primary schools for first time
* Gove wrote to 20,000 schools asking them to be academies.
84
teacher improvements under coalition
* Importance of Teaching White Paper (2010) - increased the bar for entry into teaching profession - 2013 performance-related pay for teachers
85
schools on more than just education under coalition
* Coalition focused on targeting problem families - strengthening school’ disciplinary powers - truancy rates remain high across UK
86
department of education changes
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) was renamed the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF)’ from 2007
renamed department to department for education -narrowed school’s role under coalition
87
Sevenoaks example of parent choice
setting up ‘satellite grammar schools’ by expanding those currently existing - 2012 Sevenoaks petition signed by 2,600 parents to set up their own satellite grammar school - in response to complaints that 1,150 pupils travelling 2 hours commuting to grammar schools in Tunbridge Wells
88
tests under coalition
* new test introduced at end of year 1
* SPAG test at age 11
* GCSEs all exam based instead of coursework - more emphasis on factual knowledge
89
ofsted change under coalition
* Ofsted regulations changed under coalition - (5 point to 4 point system)
replaced Ofsted ‘satisfactory’ with ‘require improvement’
rates deemed ‘inadequate’ rose from 5-11% in most deprived quintile
90
Ofsted improvement under New Labour
- genuine improvement 2005-2010 with schools deemed outstanding rising 10-22%
91
child wellbeing under coalition
* Under the coalition the wider goals relating to child wellbeing, as expressed in the Every Child Matters framework, were largely dropped, and some data was no longer collected’
92
centralisation of Unis
* 2014–2015, 159 UK HEIs provided higher education, excluding FECs and the private sector, organized in a national system with a common legal framework and financial accountability requirements.
93
growth in academies
* By 2010, 4% of secondary schools academies - by 2022/3 is 80% and 40% of primary schools
. This figure includes both converter academies (formerly maintained schools that converted to academy status) and sponsored academies (underperforming schools that were taken over by sponsors and converted to academy status).
94
difference in devolution and early years
* Early Years Foundation Stage 2006 - Wales introduced a play-based curriculum- no external testing in primary school
95
academies in Scotland
* No academy schools in rest of UK
* Scotland Wales have a comprehensive system - England has Grammar schools (5%)
Grammar schools only exist in England and NI
96
School autonomy in devolved nations
* Scotland's "Headteacher's Charter" grants headteachers greater authority and flexibility in managing their schools, including control over budgets, staffing, and curriculum planning.
Scotland has introduced models such as "cluster arrangements" and "local management of schools" (LMS), which involve collaboration between schools within a geographic area and greater involvement of school communities in decision-making processes.
97
vocational qualifications
* Qualifications such as BTECs (Business and Technology Education Council), NVQs (National Vocational Qualifications), and Technical Awards provide students with practical skills and knowledge relevant to specific industries and sectors
98
vocational further education
* Further Education (FE) colleges play a vital role in providing vocational training and education for young people and adults across the UK. These colleges offer a wide range of courses and qualifications, including apprenticeships, vocational diplomas, and professional certifications. FE colleges work closely with employers and industry bodies to develop courses that meet the needs of the local economy and provide students with the skills and knowledge required to succeed in the workplace. Many FE colleges also offer flexible learning options, including part-time and evening courses, to accommodate the needs of adult learners and those balancing work and study.
99
support for firms who train students
* 1964 Industrial Training Act - put on the agenda by skill shortages, popularity of economic planning, and tripartism
o Put a levy on firms that could be reimbursed if they provided adequate training
100
careers support for students
* National Careers Service for England - online advice - similar systems across UK
101
Youth training scheme
* The Youth Training Scheme (YTS) was launched by the Conservative government in 1983 as a response to high youth unemployment. YTS aimed to provide vocational training and work experience for young people aged 16-18. Participants received a training allowance while gaining practical skills and qualifications.
102
apprenticeships
* Modern Apprenticeships - Introduced in the 1990s: Modern Apprenticeships were introduced in the 1990s as a replacement for traditional apprenticeship schemes. These apprenticeships were designed to offer high-quality training in a wide range of industries and sectors, combining on-the-job training with classroom-based learning. Modern Apprenticeships were available to individuals of all ages and aimed to raise the skill levels of the UK workforce.
103
train to gain
* Train to Gain was introduced by the Labour government in 2006 to boost the skills of the UK workforce and support employers in training their employees. The program provided funding for vocational training and qualifications for employees aged 19 and over, with a focus on improving basic skills, technical knowledge, and workplace competencies.
104
apprenticeship target
* 2002 target to get 25% of school leavers on apprenticeships - never met
*
105
* The New Deal for Young People
* The New Deal for Young People was launched by the Labour government in 1998 to tackle youth unemployment. The program provided tailored support and training for young people aged 18-24 who had been unemployed for six months or more. Participants were offered opportunities for work experience, vocational training, and educational courses to improve their employability.
106
New Labour critique of vocational training
* 2011 wolf review of education - Criticised the proliferation of vocational qualifications and called for a focus on high-quality, rigorous vocational education that equips young people with the skills they need for the labour market
107
* University Technical Colleges (UTCs)
2010
university and/or local business sponsored/ partnership
government's initiative to improve vocational education and increase the provision of technical skills training. These institutions offer a curriculum that combines academic study with vocational training, focusing on specific industries such as engineering, healthcare, and digital technology- providing technical education and vocational training for students aged 14-19
108
t levels
2020: T Levels were introduced by the UK government in 2020 as a new technical qualification designed to offer young people a high-quality alternative to A Levels and apprenticeships
eqv. to 3 a levels
109
vocational college for younger students
* from 2013 14-16 year olds can go to vocational colleges
110
Tory restrictions on vocational training
* from 2013 14-16 year olds can go to vocational colleges
* Funding for FE/continuing education cut by 25% since 2010
* Scrapped Labour’s targets/Train to Gain program , restricted free training program places
* People over age of 24 expected to self-fund
* Schools now expected to provide their own careers advice through working with private sector
111
educational attainment
* results in maths in KS2 plateaued 2007-10 but then rose from 2010 - reaching 86% of children reaching expected level by 2014
* -in 2014 proportion of people getting 5 A*-C fell by 17.5 pp - ‘the proportion gaining 5 A*-C in 2014 was 10.5 percentage points lower than it had been in 2010’
No evidence of pupil premium effect
112
educational inequality
* Falls in attainment hit the poorest the hardest
“5 A*-C, the gap between poorer and other pupils (the FSM gap) widened between 2013 and 2014 under the new rules by 12 percentage points, but by less than 1 point at 5 A*-C EM.
* in 2014 only 15.3% of disadvantaged school pupils eligible for free school meals applied to UK universities
brought more children into education sector but have been stratified in education system. Simply have more people who are in the lower part of the education system with a qualification
113
no growing equality in higher education
* even as more wc are accepted, Higher education’s function as a channel into the middle class is more difficult to sustain, and much more difficult to universalize when the growth of higher education outpaces the growth of opportunities for upward social mobility. Inevitably, as systems grow that function becomes more specifically centered on higher prestige universities, while the competition to enter such universities becomes increasingly intense.
114
US charter schools
publicly funded, privately owns, 2.5 mill+ pupils
o in urban areas with ‘No Excuses’ model exhibit large gains when serving less privileged students - but other studies ‘find negative impacts on standardized state level tests for more privileged pupils who do not qualify for free school meals (FSM)’
o urban charters tend to generate greater achievement gains relative to non-urban charters’
o increased school hours, more intensive teaching, culture of high expectations
115
Sweden on private school access
1992 vouchers system – private schools could have students whose education was funded by state
o every student attending a free school leads to a reduction in the budget available to the municipality’s public schools’
o tentative evidence that more free schools improves municipality level test scores
o weaker evidence for positive impacts than for US case
116
UK academies comparative to other countries
* UK- academy/free schools. most autonomous. Can even opt out of national curriculum
o Often located in affluent areas
117
make up of academies
* Prior to 2010, most academies were attended by disadvantaged pupils - average academy was in the 4Th percentile of the distribution of average KS4 score in 2002, 15th percentile in 2010
* 88th percentile of number of FSM children
* Post 2011 average academy KS4 score is 56th percentile in distribution
118
when a school converts to an academy- attainment
o -also KS2 scores increases
o ‘KS4 pupil performance improved significantly in the academy conversions relative to the control schools’- this effect is bigger the longer the academy has been in place
o having attended an academy increases the likelihood of staying on after compulsory schooling age by 2.5 percentage points on average, and it increases the likelihood of entering university by 2.1 percentage points’- not significant w regard to Russel groups
o the initial academies prior to 2010 exhibited bigger improvements - probs due to poorer quality of intake and thus being better able improve them - more room for improvement notion
119
changes in academy composition post conversion
finds that FSM status reduces by 3.4 pp after academy conversion
o size of compliers was large at 96.3%. Compliers are those who continue on at the school after the conversion
the probability of headteacher turnover after the conversion increases by 63pp – only 1 time change
120
pre conversion changes in academies
o ‘higher quality student enrollment prior to conversion–this is likely if students or parents anticipate the school will convert to an academy’ - ‘drop of 1.9% in the number of FSM eligible children prior to academy conversion. This is nearly the same order of magnitude and statistical significance as the drop in the number of FSM eligible children in the conversion year (2.2%)
121
critique of coalition academies
no significant improvement in KS2 scores and only a small drop in FSM for Coalition academies’
o Post 2010- average academy school is in 57th percentile for number of students on free school meals. used to be in 88th percentile -
122
what shapes access to education
Gingrich and Ansell- * Factors that determine the pattern of residence and access to particular ‘club goods’, such as the cost of housing, will fundamentally shape who gets what kind of education.
123
housing effect on education
* Where home prices increase heterogeneously, so too might demand for more sorted or locally targeted education. In particular, high-income individuals will geographically segregate themselves in high-house-price neighbourhoods, whose schools accordingly cater to their particular preferences. Schools themselves may alter their intake rules or governance structure in order to match this demand. Housing thus supports heterogeneity among schools in their pupil intake, academic performance and governance.
* students from richer backgrounds are typically stronger academic performers, controlling for school funding levels. Moreover, peer effects mean that for any given student, being surrounded by other strong performers may improve individual performance. Finally, even absent differences in public funding for schools across neighbourhoods of different incomes, wealthier parents may contribute time and resources to supplement official offerings at the school
124
effect of high house prices on education
* the demand for sorted education rises with both growing house prices. Hence, school districts with higher housing prices will have higher average academic performance but also more academic dispersion and other forms of sorting such as charter or ‘free’ schools
* both the average level of school performance and its relative dispersion are higher in local authority districts (LADs) with high house prices
125
cyclical reinforcement of house prices and school quality
* the relation between house prices and school quality is bidirectional—better schools may produce higher house prices through the sorting effect; this then, however, limits the future population of the school to higher income citizens who can afford these high house prices. To the extent that school performance is driven by the socio-economic background of students, high house prices then improve school quality.
126
Housing price effect on school autonomy
* . Individuals who own expensive houses should be especially happy where within-district sorting is high, since this implies greater socio-economic segregation across schools—implying that schools in expensive neighbourhoods will be of higher ‘quality’.
o The existence of ‘academies’, ‘free schools’ and other forms of publicly funded schooling with independence from local government provide one such escape option. We argue schools will have more incentive to opt out where house prices are high, as wealthy parents seek to maximize the level of sorting.
127
Burgess overall argument on parent choice
- choice has the potential to improve educational outcomes, but this depends on wise institutional environment/policy.
128
the argument of diversity and choice
- Greener and Powell - In education, choice is meant to lead to education providers becoming more diverse, which in turn is meant to lead to greater choice. This argument appears circular, with choice creating diversity, and diversity creating choice, with the rather counter-intuitive suggestion that parents choose schools on the basis of their type rather than on the basis of their exam results or OFSTED reports.
129
school choice - winners and losers
Burgess- Increasing school choice- winners and losers
Has the potential to make most students winners - especially those from deprived backgrounds who get access to better schools - free transport crucial
* BUT economic theory says that this depends on financial incentives - ie if get more funding the fewer students you have, the incentive is to decrease quality
But because geography still plays crucial role likely to out-price deprived children due to housing market - hints at need to extend choice - would disbenefit middle classes
* Because over-subscribed places go to those in the ‘catchment’ area
130
increasing school choice -Success is contingent on flexibility of supply of school places - why
Burgess
where poor and affluent children live in the same place and have the same measured ability, the poor child is less likely to go to a good school
Gibbons - a one percentage point increase in the neighbourhood proportion of primary school pupils reaching the government target increases neighbourhood property prices by 0.67 per cent’
131
increasing school choice -Success is contingent on flexibility of supply of school places - what is the solution
Burgess
* Centrally funding spare capacity so that popular schools can quickly expand to meet demand
* Enable new schools to more easily enter market
* BUT role of league tables may incentivise adverse selection so regulation of admissions is crucial
* Also ballots for spaces at over-subscribed schools may be necessary to fully de-couple geography from school attended - eg. Like in Chicago
132
increasing school choice - Role of peer groups crucial to outcomes of school choice
Burgess
Peer groups affect parental preferences and pupil attainment
If parents choose schools on basis of peer group instead of teaching quality then outcomes of choice may be problematic
On the supply side - if schools are good because of teaching style/leadership etc. then choice will have positive effects- if schools are good primarily because of intake then selection effects will ensure and ‘choice will have less of an impact on improving school quality'
133
Dumay and Dupriez- school choice and outcomes
- find no link between increased autonomy/competition and improved outcomes
NOT associated with increased achievement in any subject
134
Dumay and Dupriez- choice and composition
where the competition is higher (schools competing with at least two other schools), there is a significantly higher relationship between school social composition and achievement”
o this suggests cream-skimming is a v big problem.
135
Dumay and Dupriez- private education
o mixed/weak evidence that results are higher in private sector
o better evidence that increases social inequality
o public schools have incentive to raise quality so that they don’t lose students to private sector (rising tide lifts all boats)- mixed - some find a small positive increase in average quality of public sector is associated with private sector
136
OED triangle
Bukodi, E. & Goldthorpe
origins, educational attainment, destinations
137
Link between O and E
Bukodi, E. & Goldthorpe
if education is measured in absolute terms (consumption good) then provides evidence that over time (since 1946) the OE link has been weakening (but still strong), but if education is in relative terms then OE link has remained constant overtime
‘Considering individuals with similar levels of cognitive ability, those from more advantaged social origins have significantly higher educational attainment than those from less advantaged social origins’
-implies talent wastage (inefficient)
this is despite educational expansion
138
link between E and D
Bukodi, E. & Goldthorpe
education continues to determine class destination MAINLY through class origins and natural ability
controlling for the OE relation, finds that ED relation has been weakening over time in absolute educational terms, and mildly fluctuating over time in relative educational terms (in line with recessions) - ie. Class returns to educational attainment certainly not strengthening
139
associations between O and D not through E
Goldthorpe and Bukodi
Class origins determine destinations through channels other than education
evidence that in both absolute and relative educational terms, the OD is ‘essentially stable’
creates glass ceilings and glass floor (prevent downward mobility of uneducated upper classes)
140
Bukodi and goldthorpe - failure of education policy to increase upward mobility
given the existing class structure (and corresponding opportunity structure), any increase in upward mobility will necessarily involve an increase in downward
upper classes will use their resources to resist this - maintaining competitive advantages as lower classes increase their education quantity/quality enjoyed
-eg. Private tuition, school admissions procedures, private schools
but also social/cultural factors becoming increasing important - reading bedtime stories, engaging in debates at the dinner table etc.- so long as underlying economic inequality persists, education as a solution to inequality via increasing social mobility, will be ineffective
141
Bukodi and Goldthorpe - common view ab. education
common view (especially adopted by New Labour) is that education policy -> equality of opportunity -> increased social mobility -> reduces inequality of outcome
actual mechanism: reducing inequality of outcome -> increases the potency of education for social mobility -> increase equality of opportunity
142
Bukodi and goldthorpe- limits to equalising relative mobility
capitalist market economy - will inevitably produce some level of economic inequality
- nuclear family - creates the motive to pass on advantages to children - eradicating this is unfeasible and undesirable (ie. Would not want tot stop parents reading bedtime stories) so must accept some limits - must accept that ‘activities that could be regarded as constitutive of family life serve in themselves to create significant inequalities’222
-liberal democratic polity - value of individual rights in conflict with more authoritarian policies needed to entirely eradicate advantage
143
Bukodi and Goldthorpe -- policy areas critical for increasing social mobility
domestic policies must be used to stimulate demand for grads- if we want to reverse the trend of falling upward and rising downward mobility then the class structure must be changed
policy interventions used to direct economic growth towards infrastructure/ environment / Increase R+D /offset the hollowing out of skilled manual jobs
return to high levels of social investment - these jobs will not be replaced by robots - care sector - ‘preschool education, childhood and youth services, the health service, the prison service, support for the derelict and homeless, and above all the care of the aged’
progress income taxes/inheritance taxes to alleviate underlying economic inequality (political support likely to be the main barrier)
144
Foundation schools
New labour
1998- Foundation schools are maintained by the local authority but have more freedom and control over their finances, curriculum, and staffing compared to community schools. They are overseen by a governing body, which may include representatives from the local community, parents, and sometimes the church or other sponsoring organizations.
2006- Trust schools are a type of foundation school that forms a partnership with an external organization,
145
Centralisation of schools in Scotland.
Each of Scotland's 32 local authorities have control over the provision of mandatory education and early learning and childcare (nursery education; not mandatory) in their area and have a statutory requirement to ensure pupils in each area receive adequate and efficient provision of school education.[6][7] Each local authority has control over their own education budget and have responsibility to ensure that their local authority area is implementing national educational policy and guidelines as directed by the Scottish Government
Social Policy
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Decks in class (7)
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