Endocrine

Question 1

endocrine organs

Answer 1

1. hypothalamus - main regulator. ling between nervous and endocrine system
2. Pituitary
3. Pineal
4. Thyroid
5. Parathyroid
6. Thymus
7. Adrenals
8. Pancrea
9. ovary/Testes

*Tropic = hormone works on another endocrine gland

Question 2

What are hormones?

Answer 2

• produced by endocrine glands
• released in blood stream and travel to different parts of the body (any part with blood)
• Different classes: metabolic, sex, and tropic
• feedback loops exist to regulate the homeostatic balance of the endocrine system: positive, negative
• we produce a LOT of hormones because a lot end up getting filtered out
• negative feedback = more negative in body, counteract hormones to calm them down
• positive feedback = enhances hormone response

Question 3

cellular signaling

Answer 3

• endocrine: hormones enter the circulatory system to effect distant tissues and glands
• paracrine: signals that do NOT enter the blood stream but instead regulate the activity of nearby cells within the same tissue (neighbors)
• autocrine: signals that regulate activity in the actual secreting cell from which they were released

Question 4

topic hormones

Answer 4

target other endocrine glands and stimulate growth and secretion of the gland
- all hypothalamus and most anterior pituitary hormones are tropic hormones

Question 5

water vs lipid soluble hormones

Answer 5

• water: circulate in free unbound forms: non-steroid, made of proteins, short acting responses. bind to surface receptors on outside of cell
• lipid: circulating bound to a carrier. made of cholesterol. steroids. rapid and long lasting response. pass through plasma membranes.

Question 6

steroid vs non-steroid hormones

Answer 6

STEROID: lipid-soluable.

• enter cell and nucleus directly to bind to nuclear receptors and cause a direct change within the cells
• protein synthesis (transscript and translate)
• mobile receptor model
• androgens, estrogens, progestins, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, hormones, vitamin D, retinoid
• activate DNA transcription and translation (protein synthesis)
• cholesterol

NON-STEROIDAL: water-soluble

• do NOT enter cells but bind to cell surface receptors
• deliver secondary message into the cell to induce a response
• secondary messenger model
• provides secondary hormone inside cell
• amino acids
• first messenger = signal transduction
• second messenger = calcium, cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cyclic guanosine monophosphate, tyrosine kinase system

Question 7

Hypothalamus Hormones

Answer 7

• temperature and osmolarity regulation
• all tropic hormones: all have affects on anterior pituitary
• without these hormones target glands will atrophy and too much will hypertrophy

1. GnRH –> incease FSH, incease LH
2. GHRH –> increase GH
3. TRH –> increase TSH
4. SS –> decrease GH, decrease TSH
5. PRH –> increase PRL
6. CRH –> increase ACTH
7. PIH –> decreases PRL

Question 8

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Answer 8

• Adenohypophysis: glandular
• makes its own hormones but stimulated by hypothalamus

1. FSH –> gonads
2. LH –> gonads
3. TSH –> thyroid
4. ACTH –> adrenal cortex, increases cortisol
5. GH –> increases growth, increases metabolism, increases blood sugar
6. PRL –> milk production

Question 9

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Answer 9

• neurohypophysis: neurons
• doesn’t make its own hormones, hormones produced in hypothalamus and then stored and released in post pit

1. Oxytocin –> smooth muscle birth delivery, mammary glands, positive feedback, cuddling and social hormones
2. ADH –> increase h2o reabsorption, increases blood pressure

Question 10

Pineal Gland Hormones

Answer 10

1. melatonin –> sleep cycle, menstrual cycle

Question 11

Thyroid Gland Hormones

Answer 11

1. TH –> regulates metabolic rate
   * T4 = thyroixine: more secreted but turned into T3
   * T3 = tri-iodothyronine: activates hormones
2. Calcitonin –> bone building, decreases calcium in the blood and enters bones, stimulation of osteoblasts

Question 12

Parathyroid Hormones

Answer 12

1. PTH –> increases calcium in blood, increases osteoclasts and breaks down bone, increases calcitriol release = Vit D, released from kidneys, increases calcium absorption in gut

Question 13

Pancreas

Answer 13

• Pancreatic Islet Cells
• alpha cells: secrete glucagon, secreted when low blood glucose, stimulates glycogeneolysis (glycogen breaks apart into glucse)
• beta cells: secrete insulin: secreted when high blood glucose, facilitated transport of glucose into muscles and liver cells
• delta cells: regulators

1. insulin –> decreases blood sugar, increases glucose in liver (storage), after a meal it is secreted, anabolic hormones (leads to synthesis of proteins, lipids, and nucleaic acids)
2. glucagon –> increases blood sugar, breaks down glycogen into glucose for energy, secreted between meals to keep blood sugar stable,

Question 14

Adrenal Cortex Hormones

Answer 14

• adrenal glands release hormones that aid in dealing with daily stressors
• all hormones derived from cholesterol
• growth and secretion stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone

*ACTH (stimulates cortisol production)

1. aldosterone –> increases na+ uptake in epithelial cells, decreases blood volume
2. cortisol –> released during times of stress, increases blood sugar by gluconeogensis, anti-inflammatory, immune and growth supresion, influences awareness and sleep habits, inhibits bone-protein matrix
3. weak androgens and estrogens –> estrogen, DHEA

Layers:

1. glomerulosa –> mineralcorticoids, aldosterone (increaess sodium reabsorption), salt, sodium
2. Fasiculata –> glucocorticoids, cortisol, stress, sugar
3. Reticularis –> weak androgens, DHEA, sex

Question 15

Adrenal Medulla Hormones

Answer 15

• chromaffin cells: pheochromocytes
• fight or flight responses to hypoglycemia hypoxia, hypercapnia, acidosis, hemorrhage, glucagon, nicotine, histamine, and angiotensin II, increaes inflammation
• epi is 10X morepotent than norepi

1. catecholemines –> increaess epinephine and norepinephrine
   - epinephrine: adrenalin
   - norepinephrine: noradrenalin

Question 16

Thymus hormones

Answer 16

1. thymosin –> matures and recruits T cells (in kids)

Question 17

Gonad Hormones

Answer 17

1. Testosterone
2. Estrogen
3. Progesterone

Question 18

Hypothalmic Disorders

Answer 18

1. infundibulum disruption –> anterior pituitary secretions decrease (mnostly caused by trauma)
2. hypopituitarism –> infarction, loss of blood between hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
3. hyperpituitarism –> benign tumor and increases secretion or hormones with a disrupted infundibulum

• only thing that would increase is prolactin release becayse PIH is inhibited

Question 19

Anterior Pituitary Disorders

Answer 19

1. panhypopituitarism: affects all hormones secreted by ant. pit. blood and nercous system issues (infundibulum breaks)
2. hypopituitarism: pituitary infarction/necrosis = sheehan syndrome (blood loss post partum females, reversable), hemorrhage, shock
3. hyperpituitarism: typically caused by benign slow-growth pituitary adenoma, headache and fatigue, visual changes
4. hypersecretion of prolactin: most common from adenoma/prolactinoma, amenorrhea, galactorrhea, hirsutism, osteopenia, hypogonadism, erectile hysfunction, impaired libido

Question 20

Growth Hormones Pathologies

Answer 20

• open = before puberty
• closed = after puberty
• decreased GH and open epiphysieal plates = dworfism
• decreased GH and closed epiphyseal plates = metabolic syndrome
• increased GH and open epiphyseal plates = gigantism
• increased GH and closed epiphyseal plates = acromegaly (organs grow)

Question 21

Posterior Pituitary Disorders

Answer 21

1. syndrome of inappropriate anti-diuretic hormone secretion SIADH, hypersecretion of ADH, water intoxication, too much water in blood and diluted electrolytes, brain injury or infarction, pumonary disease, psychiatric drugs
2. Diabetes Insipidus

Question 22

Diabetes Insipidus

Answer 22

• insufficiency of ADH: not absorbing enough water and peeing it all out
• increase in thirst
• polyuria, polydipsia
• inability to concentrate urine

1. neurogenic: insufficient amounts of ADH
   - dehydration, give ADH to fix (easy fix)
2. Nephrogenic: kidneys (DCT)
   - receptor problem
   - lots of increaes in ADH but receptor problem
   - not easy to fix - hormones may not help to fix it
3. Psychogenic: excessive consumption
   - mental instability
   - > 10ml fluid a day
   - therapy treatment

Question 23

Thyroid Disorders

Answer 23

1. Hyperthyroidism: increased T3/T4, decreased TSH, decreased TRH
   - graves disease = autoimmune disorder antibodies to TSH receptors on thyroid, overstimulation of t3/t4, decreased TSH and TRH, goiter
   - thyrotoxicosis = producing too much t3/t4, inflammatory disorder
   - thyrotoxic crisis = increased t3/t4, increased metabolism, skinny, increased dry skin, increased sleep issues
2. hypothyroidism: decreased T3/T4, increased TSH, increased TRH most common
   - autoimmune thyroiditis/Hashimoto Disease = developed countries, iodine deficiency, antibodies to T3, T4, or thyroid
   - thryroiditis = inflamm of thyroid causes decrease in T3
   - postpartum thyroiditis (hypo or hyper)
   - Thyroid carcinoma = sign/symptoms: fatigue, weight gain, hair loss, myexedema

Question 24

Parathyroid Disorders

Answer 24

1. hyperparathyroidism: increased blood calcium, hypercalcemia
   - excess secretion of PTH increases threshold and decreases excitability
   - skeletal and muscle weakness
   - areflexia
2. hypoparathyroidism: decreased blood claclium
   - low PTH levels
   - usually caused by parathyroid damage during surgery

Question 25

Endocrine Pancreas Disorders

Answer 25

1. diabetes mellitus | 2. microvascular and macrovascular disease

Question 26

Diabetes Mellitus

Answer 26

- glucose intollerance - polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia (increased hunger becayuse peeing out glucose) - hyperglycemia = increased glucose TYPE 1: no insulin is produced, insulin dependent - damages pancreas - pancratic atrophy and specific loss/damage to beta cells and loss - immune disorder or non-immune (trauma) - give exogenous insulin to treat - increased blood glucose but decrease of glucose in cells - genetic susceptibility, automimmune - viral infection, destruction of beta cells - immune destruction of beta cells = autoantibodies, antibodies to insulin - ketoacidosis: fruity breath - inability to breakdown sugar leads to break down of proteins and fats TYPE 2: insulin produced but resisted, non-insulin dependent - increased insulin blood levels - some insulin receptors still work - diet and exercise decreases sugar load in blood - years of increased blood sugar breaks down insulin receptors (resistence) - more common (90% of people) - risk factors: obesity, family history, ethnicity, puberty, female and metabolic syndrome (decreased GH in adulthood) - decreased beta cell response to plasma glucose, abnormal glucagon secretion - Glycated Hemoglobin (HBA1c) = can show history of high blood sugar for 3-4 months in the past - glyucated = protein gets sugar stuck on it

Question 27

Acute Conditions of Diabetes Mellitus

Answer 27

1. Hypoglycemia: 90% type 1, don't eat enough before exercise, overdosing on insulin 2. Diabetic Ketoacidosis: serious, rely on fat and protein to create glucose, fats and proteins break down and cause ketoacidosis, increase in catecholamines, cortisol, glucagon, GH

Question 28

Microvascular and Macrovascular Disease

Answer 28

Endocine Pancreas Disorders 1. microvascular: - retinophaty - blind, both type 1 and 2 - nephropathy - damage to glomerulues, bad urine - neuropathy - damage to nerve endings 2. macrovascular: Type 2 only - coronary artery disease - stroke - peripheral artery disease - atherosclerosis, increased clotting, bad diet and exercise 3. Infection: decreased immune function

Question 29

Adrenal Cortex Disorders

Answer 29

1. cushing disease: increased ACTH leads to increased cortisol - excessive ant pit secretion of ACTH - excessive cortisol leads to.. 2. Cushing syndrome: excessive levels of cortisol regardless of cause - stress, tumor, adrenal cortex issues - weight gain, fatigue 3. addison disease: decreased BP, dwecreased na+, decreased cortisol - hyposecretion of adrenocorical hormones - decreaed cortisol with possible decreased aldosterone - fatigue, orthostatic hypotension, syncope, hypoglycemia, decreased na+, uincreased k+ and Ca 4. Hyperaldosteronism: Conn disease - hypertension, myalgias, wekaness, chronic headaches, increased na+, decreased K+ - increased HP 5. hypersecretion of adrenal androgens and estrogens: feminizatino of males and virilization of females

Question 30

Adrenal Medulla Disorders

Answer 30

catecholamine Hypersecretion (norepi, epi) - chromaffin cell tumor - pheochromocytoma (benign tumor secretes too much epi/norepi) - secretions on a continuous or episodic basis - hypertension, headaches, sweating, tachycardia, tachypnea, anxiety, chest pain