EQ3 MIS Flashcards

Question

Failure of unilateral action against Russia (UN) - Russia sanctions on other nations - Issues due to veto power, who did this fuel? - how many people have died in Ukraine since 2022 due to war?

Answer 1

- Russia responded with sanctions against several countries, including a total ban of food imports from Australia, cANADA, NORWAY, Japan, the US and the EU. - Due to Veto power, a resolution between Crimea and Russia could not be met. - Could be argued that the UN only hindered the inevitable conflict and violation against humanitarian rights- 2022 - more than 12k people in Ukraine killed du to the war in 3 years (since 2022) - Veto power; membership on the UN should be removed if go against UN laws.

Answer 2

Through Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) in the 1980s–1990s, the IMF and WB: Forced developing countries to cut public spending, privatize state enterprises, and liberalize trade. Promoted Western-style free-market capitalism as the only path to growth. These reforms often: Weakened domestic industries in the Global South. Opened markets to Western companies, solidifying Western economic dominance. Reduced sovereignty by limiting governments’ policy choices.

Answer 3

The WTO, though framed as a neutral rules-based body, often enforces rules that: Protect Western intellectual property rights (e.g., under TRIPS), benefiting Western pharmaceutical and tech firms. Restrict subsidies in developing countries, while allowing them in wealthy nations (e.g., U.S. agricultural subsidies). Trade liberalization under WTO rules tends to benefit economies with existing competitive advantages—mostly advanced Western countries.

Answer 4

IMF and WB lending has created long-term debt dependency in many developing nations. Countries often must return repeatedly for bailouts, under Western-set conditions. This can limit economic autonomy and trap nations in cycles of underdevelopment favorable to Western creditors and investors.

Answer 5

International Monetary Fund (IMF) Purpose: To ensure global financial stability by promoting monetary cooperation, currency stability, and economic policy coordination. Key Contributions: Crisis response and lending: Provides short-term financial assistance to countries in economic crisis (e.g. Greece, Argentina, Sri Lanka), helping to stabilize their economies. Surveillance: Monitors global economic trends and national policies through Article IV Consultations and World Economic Outlook reports, offering guidance. Policy advice and technical assistance: Helps countries develop better fiscal policies, central banking, and governance systems. Limitations: Criticized for enforcing austerity measures that can deepen recessions in borrowing countries. Voting power is skewed toward wealthier nations, especially the US and EU.

Answer 6

Purpose: Focused on long-term economic development and poverty reduction, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Key Contributions: Infrastructure investment: Funds roads, schools, health systems, and energy projects (e.g. in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia). Capacity building: Offers technical expertise and support for institutional reforms, governance, and project management. Climate and development focus: Increasing emphasis on sustainable development, climate resilience, and social inclusion. Limitations: Some projects have been criticized for environmental or human rights impacts. Like the IMF, it faces criticism for reflecting the priorities of richer nations.

Answer 7

Purpose: Promotes free and fair international trade by regulating trade rules, reducing barriers, and settling disputes. Key Contributions: Trade liberalization: Has helped reduce tariffs and non-tariff barriers, expanding global trade since its founding in 1995. Dispute settlement mechanism: Provides a legal framework to resolve trade conflicts between member states (e.g. US-China disputes). Rules-based system: Prevents protectionism and trade wars through multilateral agreements. Limitations: Struggles to adapt to modern trade issues like digital trade and state subsidies. The Appellate Body has been weakened due to US opposition, stalling the dispute resolution process. Criticized for favoring developed economies over developing ones.

Answer 8

World Trade Organisation (WTO) — The primary defender of free trade Key Roles in Free Trade: Trade liberalization: The WTO has reduced tariffs and trade barriers through multilateral agreements (e.g. GATT, the Uruguay Round). Rules-based system: Provides a legal framework to ensure fair trade practices and prevent protectionism. Dispute settlement mechanism: Resolves trade disputes between countries, enforcing compliance with free trade rules (e.g. Airbus vs Boeing). Transparency: Encourages member countries to report trade measures, improving openness. Significance: Has expanded access to global markets for both developed and developing nations. Prevented trade wars and protectionist spirals—especially vital during crises like the 2008 financial crisis and COVID-19.

Answer 9

International Monetary Fund (IMF) — Supporting trade through financial stability Key Roles in Free Trade: Macroeconomic stability: Helps countries avoid balance of payments crises and currency instability that could lead to trade restrictions or capital controls. Policy advice: Encourages trade liberalization as part of structural adjustment programs and development strategies. Currency convertibility: Promotes policies that allow freer movement of capital and goods, facilitating international trade. Significance: Without economic stability, countries are more likely to resort to protectionism or trade restrictions. The IMF’s role in stabilising economies (e.g. during the Asian Financial Crisis) helps maintain confidence in global trade flows.

Answer 10

World Bank (WB) — Promoting trade through development and infrastructure Key Roles in Free Trade: Infrastructure investment: Funds roads, ports, railways, and digital infrastructure that enable countries—especially developing ones—to participate in global trade. Policy support: Advises on trade policy reforms, customs modernization, and border efficiency. Capacity building: Helps developing countries strengthen institutions that support export-led growth. Significance: By enhancing productive capacity and trade logistics, the World Bank helps integrate poorer countries into the global trading system. Supports inclusive trade—ensuring benefits reach small economies and marginalised groups.

Answer 11

The IMF and WB were set up during the Bretton Woods conference in the US at the end of the Second World War Its aim was to help rebuild and guide the world economy The WTO was originally set up as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Together these three IGOs are known as the Bretton Woods institutions and have had a huge influence on world trade and economic development

Answer 12

Founded in 1944, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - soon called the World Bank - has expanded to a closely associated group of five development institutions Originally, its loans helped rebuild countries devastated by World War II

Answer 13

With its headquarters is in Washington DC, the WB is not a traditional high street bank, but a global bank owned by member countries (187 countries) It has two main institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Development Association

Answer 14

The bank has over 10,000 employees and over 100 offices around the world In its early days the bank didn't lend much money, but by the late 1960s and 1970s it started lending more money to developing countries in order to fund schools, hospitals, infrastructure projects, and agricultural reform with the goal of reducing poverty

Answer 15

In the 1980s the World Bank along with the IMF began imposing SAPs (structural adjustment programmes) on many of its borrowers - based on a model of western free markets.

Answer 16

From the 1990s onwards the World Bank became more interested in helping countries achieve the UN's Millennium Development Goals, which included reducing poverty, improving health and education and ensuring sustainable growth

Answer 17

Structural Adjustment If a country defaults on (i.e. cannot repay) its loans, the global banking system is at risk. In the 1980s and '90s, the IMF reorganised many countries' loans to more affordable levels. However, to qualify for this financial adjustment, the countries were told to 'earn more and spend less' - export more goods to earn capital to repay loans, and reduce government spending. These policies were known as Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs).

Answer 18

SAPs also required the debtor nations to accept other conditions, without which they would get no further credit. These conditions included: * opening up domestic markets - allowing private companies to develop resources for export reducing the role of the government - e.g. privatising State industries * removing restrictions on capital - no limits on international investments, or on what foreign companies can own *reducing government spending - cuts to infrastructure projects and welfare *devaluing the currency - to make exports cheaper.

Answer 19

SAPs typically involve measures such as trade liberalisation, fiscal austerity, deregulation and currency devaluation. For example in Nigeria, SAP policies helped to restore economic growth, without inflation, and reached 5% GDP. SAP policies helped to reduce Nigeria's dependency on oil and imports by diversifying the productive base of the economy through revival of its agricultural sector

Answer 20

SAPs help to shrink government budget deficits, eliminate hyperinflation, and maintain debt-payment schedules. For example, SAPs in Bolivia and Uganda reduced their fiscal deficits and inflation rates and improved their debt servicing ratios in the late 1980s and early 1990s

Answer 21

SAPs aim to attract foreign investment by reducing inflation and exchange rate volatility, which increases investor confidence and reduce uncertainty. Also, by strengthening governance, rule of law, and anti-corruption measures, SAP policies can improve the transparency, accountability, and credibility of the institutions, which can reduce corruption, bureaucracy, and political risk for foreign investors

Answer 22

Reduced public spending on health, education, and social services, leading to increased poverty, inequality, and human suffering. For example, in Zambia, the SAP policies resulted in a 50% drop in health spending per capita and a rise in child mortality from 111 to 191 per 1000 live births between 1980 and 1990

Answer 23

Erosion of domestic industries and agriculture, as cheaper imports flood the market and undermine local production. For example, in Ghana, the SAP policies led to a decline in the share of manufacturing in GDP from 15% to 10% and a loss of 300,000 jobs in the sector between 1983 and 1989

Answer 24

Increased social unrest and political instability, as the population protests against the harsh measures and their negative consequences. For example, in Bolivia, the SAP policies sparked widespread demonstrations and riots in 1985, 2000, and 2003, which challenged the legitimacy of the government and threatened social cohesion

Answer 25

Jamaica is a developing country in the Caribbean. In the 1970s and 1980s, it struggled with economic recessions and debt. This led to Jamaica accepting loans from the IMF and the World Bank with structural adjustment conditions. 2) One of the main conditions was adopting austerity measures - reducing government spending on public services like health care. This had a big impact on these services — e.g. the number of registered nurses fell by 60%. 3) In 1991, Jamaica agreed to more structural adjustment in exchange for more loans — this time, the focus was on deregulating Jamaica's economy, with policies like keeping wages low to encourage foreign investment. 4) Social and economic wellbeing have declined since these reforms were introduced - for example, in 1990, 97% of children completed primary school, whereas 85% of children did in 2019. 5) A large proportion of the Jamaican government's spending goes towards paying back foreign debts, limiting the amount it can spend on health care and education. Jamaica still has a high burden of debt, however, it doesn't qualify for an HIPC initiative because its GDP means it's considered an upper-middle-income country, and is therefore 'too rich' for this financial assistance.

Answer 26

One of the main conditions was adopting austerity measures - reducing government spending on public services like health care. This had a big impact on these services — e.g. the number of registered nurses fell by 60%.

Answer 27

In 1991, Jamaica agreed to more structural adjustment in exchange for more loans — this time, the focus was on deregulating Jamaica's economy, with policies like keeping wages low to encourage foreign investment.

Answer 28

Social and economic wellbeing have declined since these reforms were introduced - for example, in 1990, 97% of children completed primary school, whereas 85% of children did in 2019.

Answer 29

- A large proportion of the Jamaican government's spending goes towards paying back foreign debts, limiting the amount it can spend on health care and education. - Jamaica still has a high burden of debt, however, it doesn't qualify for an HIPC initiative because its GDP means it's considered an upper-middle-income country, and is therefore 'too rich' for this financial assistance.

Answer 30

Jamaica's poverty rate increased from 12.9% in 2007 to 19.9% in 2017

Answer 31

Jamaica's Human Development Index (HDI) value was 0.734 in 2019, ranking 96th out of 189 countries

Answer 32

According to some statistics, Jamaica's GDP growth rate averaged only 1.4% per annum in the 1980s and 1.3% per annum in the 1990s, compared to 2.2% and 3.0% for Latin America and the Caribbean respectively

Answer 33

Jamaica's debt-to-GDP ratio reached 147% in 2013, one of the highest in the world

Answer 34

On the one hand, it helped to reduce inflation, stabilise the exchange rate, increase foreign reserves and improve fiscal discipline On the other hand, it also contributed to low growth, high unemployment, poverty, inequality, social unrest and environmental degradation

Answer 35

In 1996, the IMF and World Bank introduced the Highly Indebted Poor Countries initiative (HIPC), which aimed to reduce national debts by partially writing them off - in return for SAPs.

Answer 36

The HIPC initiative affected 36 of the world's least developed countries with the greatest debts, 30 of which were in sub-Saharan Africa.

Answer 37

However, by 2000 - aware of the many problems being created by SAPs - NGOs such as Oxfam and Christian Aid were demanding more concerted action to reduce the debt burden, and they began campaigning for a total debt write-off.

Answer 38

In 2005, when the UK held the presidency of the G8 (see Section 3.2), Chancellor Gordon Brown steered the G8 towards the decision to cancel all debts owed to the World Bank and IMF by 18 HIPC - a decision worth US$40 billion, which saved those countries US$1.5 billion a year in debt repayments. However, there were conditions: * Each country had to show good financial management and a lack of corruption. *The national governments had to spend the savings gained through the cancelled debt repayments on poverty reduction, education and healthcare programmes.

Answer 39

Almost all countries are members of the IMF, World Bank and the WTO. This is because the three IGOs are so influential that countries find it difficult to take part in the global economy without becoming members. Additionally, some countries are members of regional trade blocs, like NAFTA:

Answer 40

NAFTA was a treaty between Canada, the USA and Mexico. It was signed in 1992 and committed the three countries to removing any trade barriers between them, e.g. tariffs and customs duties on imports and exports. - This allowed corporations from Canada and the USA to take advantage of the lower labour costs in Mexico, and Mexico was able to import high-quality goods from Canada and the USA.

Answer 41

Positive Effects Trade growth: Regional trade increased significantly (e.g., U.S.–Mexico trade tripled by the 2000s). Investment: Boosted foreign direct investment, especially in Mexico's manufacturing sector. Supply chains: Encouraged the growth of integrated supply chains, particularly in automotive and agriculture.

Answer 42

Criticisms and Controversies Job losses in some sectors: Especially U.S. manufacturing, where companies outsourced to Mexico for lower labor costs. Labor exploitation: Critics argued NAFTA enabled poor labor conditions in Mexico. Environmental concerns: Industrial growth in Mexico, particularly near the border, raised pollution issues. - family farmers in Mexico have struggled to compete with cheap agricultural imports from the USA.

Answer 43

In 2020, NAFTA was replaced by the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), known as CUSMA in Canada and T-MEC in Mexico.

Answer 44

- NAFTA was outdated (signed in 1994) and didn’t cover digital trade, e-commerce, or updated labor/environmental standards. - The U.S. wanted stricter rules to reduce trade deficits and bring manufacturing (especially autos) back to America. - political pressure: Driven by President Trump’s view that NAFTA hurt American workers and industries.

Answer 45

The ozone layer is mostly found above the Earth's surface in the stratosphere (part of the atmosphere). It absorbs some of the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays, making it safer for life to live on Earth. In the 1970s, scientists realised that industrial chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), were damaging the ozone layer.

Answer 46

In 1987, the UN set up an agreement between countries to limit and eventually ban the production and use of CFCs and other ozone-damaging chemicals. This was called the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, and it was signed by every country in the world.

Answer 47

By 2010, the Montreal Protocol had succeeded in phasing out 98% of the ozone-damaging chemicals that were being emitted in 1990. The biggest area of ozone damage, above the Antarctic, has shown signs of recovery.

Answer 48

However, from 2012 to 2017, there was an increase in emissions of one type of CFC, suggesting that some countries broke the global ban in this period. - Global ozone levels are expected to fully recover by around 2050, but the damage over Antarctica may not fully recover until around 2100.

Answer 49

CITES is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna. It's an international agreement between governments (currently over 180) about trading wild plant and animal species as well as products made from them.

Answer 50

The convention, which came into force in 1975, covers around 6000 animal species and 32 000 plant species. These are sorted into three categories, depending on how high the risk of them being traded internationally is.

Answer 51

Trade involving the most endangered species, such as tigers, have the strictest rules. Species that are less at risk can be traded by some countries and in certain circumstances, as long A vicuña (a previously endangered species) as the trade is monitored and regulated. CITES holds training workshops in order to help countries to enforce the treaty and tackle illegal trade. CITES can be enforced through national legislation.

Answer 52

CITES has helped to make trade more sustainable and protect some species. For example, the vicuña (an animal related to llamas and native to South America) was seriously endangered in the 1970s because of demand for its fur, but populations have now recovered - by 2020, populations had reached over 450 000.

Answer 53

However, CITES hasn't been completely successful — sanctions are rarely imposed, membership is voluntary and it can be slow to take action. For example, pangolins A pangolin (an endangered species) were designated as threatened with extinction in 2014 but weren't added to CITES most endangered list till 2017.

Answer 54

UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) In 1994, 157 countries signed UNCLOS - an agreement defining rights and responsibilities of nations in using the world's oceans. It provided guidelines for managing marine resources, creating Exclusive Economic Zones by extending territorial water zones to 200 nautical miles from the coast. Within these, coastal nations have sole exploitation rights over resources, including fishing and minerals.

Answer 55

Many countries share water resources, e.g. rivers that flow through several countries, or lakes that border on more than one country. In 1996, the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention) came into force after being set up in Helsinki by the UN to help countries manage their shared water resources in a sustainable way.

Answer 56

The Water Convention has helped countries to develop agreements about specific water resources, e.g. the Convention on the Protection of the Rhine, which involves five countries, plus the European Community. It's also supported lots of monitoring and research around water quality, e.g. the monitoring of chloride levels. Limitation: However, not all countries have joined the Water Convention — as of 2022, 47 countries have ratified the convention.

Answer 57

The UN set up the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) in 2001 to carry out a global study of the state of the environment and to monitor environmental change. It would assess consequences of ecosystem change and actions needed to conserve and use ecosystems sustainably by appraising them and the services they provide (e.g. water, food, flood control and resources).The idea was that this would provide a scientific basis for tackling environmental problems and the impact they can have on human wellbeing. Over 1360 scientists and experts contributed to the MA, which was published in 2005.

Answer 58

The MEA is needed. - Since 1950, economic development and population growth have caused irreversible ecosystem damage. - Half the world's natural habitats have been cleared for human use (mostly agriculture) and up to 1.5% is cleared annually. Current rates of extinction are 100 times faster than natural rates, and species loss is occurring at 30 000 a year, faster than anything known before.

Answer 59

Resource Management and Economic Zones Introduced the concept of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), giving coastal states special rights over marine resources up to 200 nautical miles from their shores. This has helped countries, especially developing ones, secure economic rights to offshore resources.

Answer 60

Peaceful Dispute Resolution UNCLOS created mechanisms for peaceful resolution of maritime disputes, including: International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) International Court of Justice (ICJ) Arbitral tribunals Numerous maritime disputes have been resolved through these mechanisms (e.g., Philippines vs. China in the South China Sea)

Answer 61

Global Participation and Acceptance Widespread Ratification: Over 165 countries and the European Union are parties to UNCLOS. Although major maritime powers like the United States have not ratified it, they still largely comply with its provisions, acknowledging its customary international law status.

Answer 62

Weak Enforcement Mechanisms UNCLOS lacks robust enforcement tools: No dedicated body to enforce rulings or punish violations. Relies heavily on state compliance and goodwill. Countries often ignore rulings (e.g., China’s rejection of the 2016 South China Sea arbitration ruling).

Answer 63

Limited Scope on Emerging Issues UNCLOS does not adequately address: Marine genetic resources (a growing area in biotechnology) Climate change impacts (e.g., sea-level rise affecting baselines and maritime boundaries) New technologies like autonomous underwater vehicles and deep-sea mining methods

Answer 64

Lack of Universal Ratification The United States has not ratified UNCLOS, despite being a major naval and maritime power. This undermines the convention’s universal legitimacy and limits its global enforceability. Other countries may also feel less compelled to comply if major powers aren't fully committed.

Answer 65

Globalization of the Convention Originally limited to the UNECE (European) region, but in 2016 it was opened to non-European countries. Countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America are joining or showing interest, giving it growing global relevance. Examples: Chad, Senegal, and Ghana have acceded to the Convention, applying its principles in the Senegal River Basin.

Answer 66

The convention fosters cooperation among countries sharing rivers, lakes, and groundwater resources. It has helped prevent conflicts and build trust among riparian states. More than 150 transboundary water bodies are now covered by cooperative agreements influenced by or based on the Convention.

Answer 67

Adaptability to New Challenges Actively addresses emerging issues such as: Climate change impacts on water resources Water scarcity Disaster risk reduction Updated with additional protocols (e.g., on Water and Health, 1999) to broaden its relevance.

Answer 68

Limited Focus on Groundwater While the Convention includes groundwater in its scope, its implementation has been mostly surface water–oriented. Transboundary aquifers are often overlooked, despite their critical importance in arid and semi-arid regions.

Answer 69

The Convention lacks strong enforcement mechanisms. There is no formal dispute resolution body or binding arbitration requirement. States that violate principles (e.g., causing harm to downstream neighbors) face limited consequences.

Answer 70

Developing countries may lack the technical and financial capacity to implement the Convention’s provisions. This can result in inequitable application, where only well-resourced countries benefit fully. Implementation often requires regional institutions and data-sharing infrastructure, which are underdeveloped in many regions.

Answer 71

Global, Interdisciplinary Collaboration Involved over 1,360 experts from 95 countries, across multiple disciplines—ecology, economics, health, sociology, and more. Produced a credible, peer-reviewed, and widely accepted knowledge base on ecosystems and human well-being.

Answer 72

Conceptual Breakthrough: Ecosystem Services Popularised the framework of ecosystem services—the benefits humans derive from ecosystems: Provisioning (e.g. food, water) Regulating (e.g. climate, disease control) Cultural (e.g. recreation, spiritual) Supporting (e.g. nutrient cycling, soil formation) This changed the way policymakers, businesses, and scientists think about nature—not just as a resource, but as a service provider.

Answer 73

Used by national governments, UN agencies, NGOs, and others as a basis for environmental assessments, planning, and legislation. Inspired follow-up efforts like: The IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) National ecosystem assessments in many countries

Answer 74

The MA was not a treaty or binding agreement, so countries had no obligation to act on its findings. Its role was advisory, not regulatory—thus limiting its practical enforcement power.

Answer 75

While it introduced the ecosystem services concept, critics argue it focused too heavily on biophysical and ecological aspects, with less emphasis on economics and governance. For instance, it didn’t deeply explore institutional incentives, economic trade-offs, or market-based tools that could promote sustainable ecosystem use.

Answer 76

The quality and availability of data were inconsistent across regions, especially in developing countries. Certain ecosystems (e.g., drylands, urban ecosystems) were understudied. Limited data on long-term trends or localised ecosystem functions reduced the precision of assessments.

Answer 77

Antarctica isn't owned by any one country, although several countries have made territorial claims to it. International agreements have been set up to try to make sure that it's governed peacefully and used for scientific research rather than exploited for its resources.

Answer 78

The Antarctic Treaty (1959) is an agreement about how to sustainably manage Antarctica's ecosystems. It has now been signed by 55 countries.

Answer 79

* Antarctica should only be used for peaceful reasons - no army bases or weapons are allowed on Antarctica. * Countries should cooperate on scientific research in Antarctica by sharing plans, researchers and results. * Antarctica should remain in the global commons — individual countries can't make any claims to it.

Answer 80

Overall the Antarctic Treaty is viewed as a success. - It ended territorial claims being made and Antarctica has remained largely unexploited, while scientists working there have collaborated, increasing knowledge about the Antarctic environment. - Under the 1959 treaty, all bases and equipment in Antarctica can be inspected at any time, with different countries taking responsibility for carrying out inspections. However, inspections don't occur very often.

Answer 81

- Under the Treaty, each party has enjoyed peaceful cooperation and freedom of scientific research. That research has contributed significantly to knowledge of the Earth and is contributing to the protection of the global environment. Environmental monitoring in Antarctica has, for example, led to the discovery of the seasonal depletion of atmospheric ozone over the Antarctic. - As the Antarctic Treaty System matures it has become recognised as one of the most successful sets of international agreements, setting an example of peaceful cooperation for the rest of the world.

Answer 82

Tourism in Antarctica began in the late 1950s when Argentina and Chile first carried a few hundred fare-paying passengers to the South Shetland Islands, and has increased ever since. - The tourism industry is largely managed by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO), a voluntary trade association, which was founded by seven private tour operators in 1991 and now comprises of more than 100 member companies. Similarly, the number of tourists visiting the continent has increased from 6,700 in the 1992–1993 season to 56,000 during 2018–19. - Scientists and conservation groups have warned that although human activities on Antarctica are regulated by the treaty and its associated protocols, tourism threatens the continent’s biodiversity. They contend that increased human movement in Antarctica increases the risk that people will transfer invasive species to the continent. In addition, scientists have also expressed concern about potential pollution from shipping vessels travelling to and from the continent.

EQ3 MIS Flashcards

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