Erikson

Question 1

(Erikson) General orientation to the theory:

Answer 1

1. Erikson accepted basic notions of Freudian theory
2. 1. psychological structures
3. 2. the unconscious and conscious
4. 3. drives
5. 4. psychosexual stages …
6. Expanded Freud`s theory:
7. 1 by constructing a set of eight psychosocial stages covering the life span
8. 2. studying development of identity
9. 3. developing new methods

Question 2

The background to Erikson’s psychosocial stages:

Answer 2

1. Erikson perceived need to add a life-span psychosocial dimension to Freud`s theory
   - ->Psychosocial stages corresponding to Freudian psychosexual stages
2. Psychosocial view: physical maturation has personal and social repercussions
3. 1. brings new skill that opens up new possibilities
4. 2. but also increases society`s demands
5. “Fit” between child and culture
6. Psychosocial development is culturally embedded:
7. 1. same sequence of stages in all cultures
8. 2. differences in how culture directs and enhances a child`s behavior
9. 3. cultures change over time
10. Personality becomes increasingly differentiated as it unfolds in, and is shaped by, a particular environment
11. Movement through a set of psychosocial “crises” or issues as the child matures
    - ->Expansion of his radius of significant relationships

Question 3

(Erikson) General nature of the theory:

Answer 3

1. Maturation and society’s expectations  eight crises a person must resolve
2. Each issue most evident at a particular stage in the life cycle but appears in some form throughout development
3. Each crisis: positive and negative outcomes possible
4. 1. Ideally, favorable ratio, in which the positive aspect dominates the negative
5. If childhood crisis is not handled satisfactorily, a person continues to fight his early battles later in life
6. Each stage builds on previous stages and influences the form of later stages

Question 4

(Erikson) Emphasis on identity:

Answer 4

1. Main theme of life is the quest for identity – understanding and acceptance of both the self and one’s society
2. Question “who am I?” – different answer in each stage
3. Identity begins when a baby “first recognizes his mother and first feels recognized by her, when her voice tells him he is somebody with a name and he’s good”

Question 5

(Erikson) Expansion of psychoanalytic methodology:

Answer 5

1. Erikson contributed to three methods for studying development:
2. 1. direct observation of children
3. 2. cross-cultural comparisons
4. 3. psychobiography
5. “We must study man in action and not just man reflecting on reality” (quoted in Evans, 1967, p. 91)
6. Studies and descriptions on contrasts between cultures
7. Psychobiographies: analyses of psychosocial development of well-known people (e.g. Hitler, Luther)

Question 6

(Erikson) What are the eight stages of the theory?

Answer 6

1. Basic trust vs. basic mistrust (oral)
2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (anal)
3. Initiative vs. guilt (phallic)
4. Industry vs. inferiority (latency)
5. Identity and repudiation vs. identity diffusion (genital)
6. Intimacy and solidarity vs. isolation
7. Generativity vs. stagnation and self-absorption
8. Integrity vs. despair

Question 7

(Erikson) Stage 1: Basic trust vs. basic mistrust:

Answer 7

birth to 1 year

1. Main task of infancy: acquire a favorable ratio of trust to mistrust
2. Basic trust – “an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one`s own trustworthiness”
3. Babies develop trust in their caregiver and in themselves – e.g., from feeling that others accept them
4. Mistrust necessary at all ages:
5. 1. to detect impending danger or discomfort
6. 2. to discriminate between honest and dishonest persons
7. Psychosocial modality: oral experiences prototypes for getting and giving in return

Question 8

(Erikson) Stage 2: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt:

Answer 8

2 to 3 years

1. Children become more independent physically and psychologically
   - ->new possibilities for personality development
2. Same time new vulnerabilities:
3. 1. anxiety over separation from parents
4. 2. fear that anal control may not always be possible
5. Ideally, parents create supportive atmosphere in which children can develop sense of self-control without a loss of self-esteem
6. Positive component: autonomy
7. Negative component: shame and doubt
8. Psychosocial modality: to hold (on), to let go

Question 9

(Erikson) Stage 3: Initiative vs. guilt:

Answer 9

4 to 5 years

1. „Children`s identification with their parents, who are perceived as big, powerful, and intrusive”
2. Erikson accepted Freud`s account of Oedipus complex, but emphasized the social components more than the sexual
   –>Identification brings with it a conscience, interests, attitudes, and sex-typed
   behavior
3. Psychosocial modality: “making” – intrusion, taking the initiative, carrying out goals, competing; “to make like” (= playing)
4. Children settle somewhere along dimension: successful initiative - overwhelming guilt
   –>Guilt: due to overly severe conscience

Question 10

(Erikson) Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority:

Answer 10

6 years to puberty

1. Children enter the larger world of knowledge and work, „I am what I learn“
2. Successful experiences:
   - ->sense of industry, feeling of competence and mastery
3. Failure
   - ->sense of inadequacy and inferiority
4. Psychosocial modality:
5. 1. to make things (=completing)
6. 2. to make things together
7. Stages before were preparation for entry into society
8. Calmer period, a time of psychosexual latency

Question 11

(Erikson) Stage 5: Identity and repudiation vs.

identity diffusion:

Answer 11

adolescence

1. Issues of earlier stages contribute to a child`s identity
   - ->now this concern reaches a climax
2. Basic task: integrate various identifications or roles from childhood into a more complete identity
3. If adolescents cannot integrate roles: “identity diffusion”
4. Psychosocial modality: to be oneself or not to be oneself
5. Youth seek their true selves through peer groups, clubs, religion, political movements etc.; try out new roles
6. Society conveys which roles are valued

Question 12

(Erikson) Stage 6: Intimacy and Solidarity vs. isolation:

Answer 12

young adulthood

1. Only if well-integrated identity developed in stage 5, intimacy with other people (or oneself) is possible
2. Romantic relationships, friendships and access to own intimate feelings and thoughts mark this stage
3. Psychosocial modality: to lose and find oneself in another
4. If attempts in intimacy fail  isolation – relationships are stereotyped, cold, empty

Question 13

(Erikson) Stage 7: Generativity vs. stagnation and self-absorption:

Answer 13

middle adulthood

1. Generativity – “the interest in establishing and guiding the next generation”
2. Prerequisites: faith in future, belief in the species, ability to care about others
3. Psychosocial modality: to make be, to take care of
4. Mechanism for continuity of society from generation to generation
5. Lack of generativity -> stagnation, self-absorption, boredom, lack of psychological growth

Question 14

(Erikson) Stage 8: integrity vs. despair:

Answer 14

late adulthood

1. People must live with what they have built over their lifetime
2. Ideally, they achieved integrity
3. 1. acceptance of the limitations of life,
4. 2. a sense of being a part of a larger history,
5. 3. a sense of owning the wisdom of the ages,
6. 4. a final integration of all previous stages
7. Antithesis: despair
8. 1. regret for what he has done or not done with one’s life
9. 2. fear of approaching death
10. Psychosocial modality: to be, through having been, to face not being

Question 15

(Erikson) Mechanism of development:

Answer 15

1. Physical maturation: general timetable for development
2. Society exerts its influence at many levels – from ideology to how a parent cares
3. Other mechanism of development come from Freud
4. 1. drives, frustrations from external and internal forces, attachment, and identification
5. But: Erikson saw development as resolution of conflict from opposing forces
   - ->e.g., a child integrates holding on and letting go, initiative and guilt
6. Play as a mechanism of development

Question 16

Erikson’s positions on developmental issues:

Answer 16

1. Erikson’s positions close to Freud’s but differs in emphasis
2. More optimistic view of human nature: children and adults actively seek to develop a positive sense of identity
3. Worldview: elements of contextualism – cultural context contributes to the resolution of the crisis of each stage
4. Development primarily qualitative – changes are stagelike – but also quantitative – identity becomes stronger
5. Nature vs. nurture: nature determines sequence of the stages and sets limits within which nurture operates; emphasis on role of culture in nurturing
6. Development as lifelong process
7. Essence of development: formation of an identity that gives coherence to one’s personality

Question 17

(Erikson) Applications of the theory:

Answer 17

1. Erikson applied theory to:
2. 1. adolescent identity crises
3. 2. conflict between generations
4. 3. post-war adjustment of soldiers
5. 4. child rearing
6. Counselling: work with adolescents on identity, personal decisions

Question 18

(Erikson) Evaluation: Strengths:

Answer 18

1. Expansion of Psychoanalytic Theory
   ->widening empirical base
   ->added
   1.1 psychosocial to psychosexual
   1.2. cultural the biological
   1.3. ego identity to ego defenses
   1.4. normal to abnormal
   1.5.child observations to adults`
   reconstructions from childhood
   1.6. adult development to child
   development
2. Broad perspective

Question 19

(Erikson) Evaluation: Weaknesses:

Answer 19

1. Lack of systematicity
   1.1. loose connection of observations,
   generalizations, and theoretical claims
   1.2. lack of controlled experimentation
2. Lack of specific mechanisms of
   development
   2.1. no explanations how a child moves
   from stage to stage or how he resolves
   crises
   2.2. statement what influences movement
   but not how movement comes about