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Why are some diuretics ‘potassium‑wasting’?
Loop & thiazide diuretics ↑ Na⁺ delivery to collecting duct → ENaC reabsorption → K⁺ secretion → hypokalemia
Cellular pathogenesis of asthma
Allergen → dendritic cell → Th2 → IL‑4/IL‑5/IL‑13 → IgE → mast cells → histamine/leukotrienes → bronchoconstriction + mucus + eosinophils
Asthma cause
Allergic, IgE‑mediated, eosinophils
COPD cause
Smoking, neutrophils, protease damage
Asthma reversibility
Fully reversible
COPD reversibility
Not fully reversible
Asthma first‑line therapy
Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS)
COPD first‑line therapy
LAMA/LABA (bronchodilators)
ICS in COPD use
Severe COPD or frequent exacerbations
Serotonin syndrome features
Hyperreflexia, clonus, agitation, diarrhea, fever
Serotonin syndrome treatment
Cyproheptadine
NMS features
Rigidity, slow onset, altered sensorium
NMS treatment
Dantrolene or bromocriptine
Malignant hyperthermia features
Triggered by anesthesia, rigidity, ↑ CO₂, fever
Malignant hyperthermia treatment
Dantrolene
Tolerance definition
Higher doses required for same effect
Dependence definition
Withdrawal if drug stopped
Addiction definition
Compulsive drug use despite harm
SSRI mechanism
Blocks serotonin reuptake
SNRI benefit
Good for depression + neuropathic pain
TCA caution
Anticholinergic, arrhythmias, lethal overdose risk
MAOI caution
Tyramine → hypertensive crisis
Sedative effect on sleep
↓ REM, ↓ deep sleep, ↑ light sleep (N2)
