1
Q
monomer
A
the smaller units from which larger molecules are made
2
Q
polymer
A
molecules are made from a large number of monomers joined together
3
Q
disaccharide
A
formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides
held together by a glycosidic bond
e.g: maltose, sucrose, lactose
4
Q
monosaccharide
A
monomers from which larger carbohydrates are made
e.g: glucose, fructose, galactose
5
Q
polysaccharide
A
formed by the condensation of many glucose units
held by glycosidic bonds
e.g: starch, glycogen, cellulose
6
Q
cellulose
A
polysaccharide in plant cell walls
formed by the condensation of beta glucose monomers
7
Q
condensation reaction
A
a reaction that joins two molecules togethers
with the formation of a chemical bond
involves the elimination of a molecule of water
7
Q
glycogen
A
polysaccharide in animals
formed by the condensation of alpha glucose monomers
8
Q
starch
A
polysaccharide in plants
formed by the condensation of alpha glucose monomers
contains two polymers - amylose and amylopectin
9
Q
amylose
A
polysaccharide in starch
made of alpha glucose monomers
joined by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
coils to form a helix
9
Q
glycosidic bond
A
C-O-C link
between two sugar molecules
formed by a condensation reaction
it is a covalent bond
10
Q
amylopectin
A
polysaccharide in starch
made of alpha glucose
joined by a 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds
branched structure
11
Q
hydrolysis reaction
A
a reaction that breaks a chemical bond
between two molecules
involves the use of a water molecule
12
Q
fibrils
A
long, straight chains of beta glucose monomers
held together by many hydrogen bonds
13
Q
triglyceride
A
formed by the condensation of one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids
forming 3 ester bonds
14
Q
phospholipid
A
formed by the condensation of one molecule of glycerol and two molecules of fatty acid
help by 2 ester bonds
a phosphate group is attached to the glycerol
15
Q
induced-fit model
A
the enzyme active site is not initially complementary to the substrate
the active site moulds around the substrate
this puts tension on bonds
lowers the activation energy
16
Q
competitive inhibitor
A
a molecule that is a similar shape to the substrate
binds to active site
prevents enzyme-substrate complexes from forming
forms enzyme-inhibitor complex
17
Q
non-competitive inhibitor
A
a molecule that binds to an enzyme at the allosteric site
causing the active site to change shape permanently
preventing enzyme-substrate complexes from forming
forms enzyme-inhibitor complex
18
Q
primary structure of proteins
A
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
peptide bonds between amino acid
19
Q
secondary structure of proteins
A
the folding or coiling of polypeptide
to create a beta pleated sheet or an alpha helix
held in place by hydrogen bonds
20
Q
tertiary structure of protein
A
the further folding
to create a unique 3D shape
held in place by hydrogen, ionic and sometimes disulfide bonds
21
Q
quaternary structure of protein
A
more than one polypeptide chain in a protein
22
Q
peptide bond
A
covalent bond joining amino acids together in proteins
C-N link between an amine and carboxyl group of two different amino acid molecules
formed by a condensation reaction
23
what is the effect of temperature on enzyme-controlled reaction?
at low temperature, there is not enough KE for successful collisions between the enzyme and substrate
at too high temperature, enzymes denature; active site changes shape and enzyme-substrate complexes cannot form
24
what is the effect of pH on enzyme-controlled reaction?
too high or too low a pH will interfere witht he charges in the amino acids in the active site
this breaks ionic and hydrogen bonds holding tertiary structure in place
hence, active site changes shape and enzymes denatures
different enzymes have a different optimal pH
25
what is the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme-controlled reaction?
at low substrate conc, there will be fewer collisions between the enzyme and substrate
at high substrate conc, the rate plateaus
bc all the enzyme active sites are saturated
26
what is the effect of enzyme concentration on enzyme-controlled reaction?
at low enzyme conc, there will be fewer collisions between enzyme and substrate
at high enzyme conc, the rate plateaus
bc there are more enzymes than the substrate, so there are empty active sites
27
hydrophilic
the ability to mix, interact or attract water
e.g: head region on a phospholipid
27
ester bond
COO chemical bond
formed between glycerol and fatty acids
28
hydrophobic
the tendency to repel and not mix with water
e.g: tail region on a phospholipid
29
galactose
the monosaccharide that reacts with glucose to form lactose
29
glucose
monosaccharide that exists as two isomers
alpha glucose and beta glucose
30
fructose
monosaccharide that reacts with glucose to form sucrose
31
isomer
molecules with the same molecular formula
but the atoms are arranged differently
32
maltose
disaccharide
formed by the condensation of two glucose molecules
33
lactose
disaccharide
formed by the condensation of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule
34
sucrose
disaccharide
formed by the condensation
of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule
it is a non-reducing sugar
35
polypeptide
polymer chain of a protein
made up of amino acids
bonded together by peptide bonds
via condensation reactions
36
amino acid
the monomer of a protein
formed from C, H, O, N
contain a carboxyl group, amino group, and H, and an R group
37
amine group
NH2 group found on amino acids
38
carboxyl group
COOH group
made up of a C with hydroxyl (OH) and carbonyl (C=O) group bonded to it
found in amino acids and fatty acids
39
R group on amino acids
the variable group
the part of each of the 20 amino acids that is different
40
alpha helix
a secondary structure in proteins
the polypeptide chain is coiled up and held in place by hydrogen bonds
41
beta pleated sheet
a secondary structure in proteins
the polypeptide chain folded into pleated sheets
held in place by hydrogen bonds
42
hydrogen bonds
weak bond
forms between H and O
in many biological molecules, e.g: proteins, DNA and tRNA
43
ionic bonds
a bond that forms between the R group of different amino acids
in the tertiary structure of proteins
44
disulfide bonds
a strong covalent bond
between two sulfur atoms in the R groups of different amino acids
in the tertiary structure of proteins
45
active site
unique-shaped parts of an enzyme
that the substrate binds to
46
activation energy
the minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur
47
enzyme-subrate complex
forms when an enzyme and substrate collide and bind
resulting in a lowered activation energy
48
unsaturated fatty acid
a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end
at lease one double bond between carbon atoms
48
denature
when the active site changes shape
so the substrate can no longer bind, and no enzyme-subsrate complexes form
49
enzyme-inhibitor complex
the structure that forms when an enzyme and inhibitor collide and bind
prevents enzyme-subsrate complexes from forming
50
saturated fatty acid
a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end
only single bonds between carbon atoms
51
polar molecule
a molecule that has an uneven distribution of charge
52
describe the structure of a phospholipid bilayer
a phospholipid has:
- a hydrophilic (polar) head that is attracted to water
- two hydrophobic (non-polar) tails that repel water
in a bilayer, phospholipids form two layers, with the heads on the outside and the tails on the inside
53
plasma membrane
phospholipid bilayer
cell surface membranes and organelle membranes
54
reducing sugar
sugars that can reduce Cu2+ ions in Benedict's reagent to form Cu+ ions in the form of copper (I) oxide
which forms a brick-red precipitate
55
test for reducing sugar?
add Benedict's reagent
heat
observe green/yellow/orange/brick red precipitate
56
how does the structure of a triglyceride relate to its function?
high ratio of C-H bonds to carbon atoms = lots of energy released when broken
high hydrogen to oxygen ratio = release water when oxidised (metabolic water source)
large, non-polar = insoluble in water, doesn't affect water potential
low mass to energy ratio = energy-rich storage molecule
57
how does the structure of a phospholipid relate to its function?
phospholipids have two charged regions, so they are polar
in water, they are positioned so that the heads are exposed to water and the tails are not
this forms a phospholipid bilayer, which makes up the plasma membrane around cells
58
how does the structure of a triglyceride and phospholipid differ?
triglyceride: 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids
phospholipids: 1 glycerol + 2 fatty acids + 1 phosphate group
triglycerides are non-polar and hydrophobic
phospholipids have a polar (hydrophilic) head and non-polar (hydrophobic) tails
59
what is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acid?
a saturated fatty acid has no double bonds between carbon atoms
whereas unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond between carbon atoms
60
non-reducing sugar
a sugar unable to reduce Cu2+
glycosidic bond must be hydrolysed to expose the reducing group
e.g: sucrose
61
test for non-reducing sugar
(following a negative Benedict's test)
boil sample in acid and then neutralise with alkaline
add Benedict's reagent and heat
observe brick red precipitate
62
test for starch
add iodine solution
turns blue/black
63
test for lipids
add ethanol
then add water
shake
white emulsion forms
64
test for protein
add biuret reagent
turns purple/lilac
64
nucleotide
monomer of DNA and RNA
contains a pentose sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base
64
nitrogenous base
part of a nucleotide
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine and uracil
64
DNA nucleotide
monomer of DNA
contains a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base
64
polynucleotide
DNA/RNA polymer
many nucleotides joined together via a condensation reaction
joined by phosphodiester bonds
64
phosphodiester bond
bond joining two adjacent nucleotides together
formed via condensation reaction
forms between a phosphate group and the pentose sugar
65
complementary base pairs
the base pairs that align opposite each other and form hydrogen bonds
A and T (DNA)
A and U (RNA)
C and G
66
ribose
pentose sugar
found in RNA nucleotide and ATP
67
uracil
nitrogenous base
found in RNA instead of thymine
68
what is the role of DNA and RNA in cells?
DNA holds genetic info in all living cells
RNA transfers genetic info from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis
69
what are ribosomes formed from?
RNA
proteins
70
describe the structure of a DNA molecule
nucleotide monomer
DNA is a polymer
double helix made of two polynucleotide chains
held together by hydrogen bonds between specific complementary base pairs
71
DNA template strand
a DNA strand that is used to make a new copy from
both DNA strands in the double helix are used as templates in DNA replication
72
DNA polymerase
an enzyme in DNA replication
joins together adjacent nucleotides
73
semi-conservative replication
DNA replication is semi-conservative replication
each new DNA molecule contains one original (parental) strand and one newly synthesised strand
74
DNA helicase
enzyme that breaks hydrogen bonds between the chains of DNA in a double helix
causes the two strands to separate
involved in DNA replication
75
large latent heat of vaporisation
a lot of energy is required to convert water from its liquid state to a gaseous state
this is due to the hydrogen bonds between molecules, as energy is needed to break these to turn it into a gas
means water can provide a cooling effect
76
high specific heat capacity
a lot of energy is required to raise the temperature of water
because some of the heat energy is used to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules
important so water can act as a temperature buffer
77
metabolite
water is involved in many reactions
such as photosynthesis, hydrolysis, and condensation reactions
78
list the 5 main properties/roles of water
large latent heat of vaporisation
high specific heat capacity
metabolite
solvent
strong cohesion
79
solvent
water is a good solvent
meaning many substances dissolve in it
polar (charged) molecules dissolve readily in water, due to the fact water is polar
80
strong cohesion
water molecules 'stick' together due to hydrogen bonds
results in water moving up the xylem as a continuous column of water
provides surface tension, creating a habitat on the surface of the water for small invertebrates
80
ATP synthase
enzymes that catalyses the synthesis of ATP from ADP + Pi
81
ATP hydrolase
enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP + Pi
82
phosphorylation
the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule
making the molecule more reactive/ it gains energy
83
dipeptide
two amino acids joined together by a peptide bond
formed by a condensation reaction
83
RNA nucleotide
monomer of RNA
composed of a phosphate group, ribose and a nitrogenous base
has the base uracil, instead of thymine
83
structure of water
water is a polar molecule
the oxygen atom is slightly negative
the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive
84
role of hydrogen ions
determine the pH
the more hydrogen ions, the more acidic the conditions are
an important role in chemiosmosis in respiration and photosynthesis
85
role of iron ions
a compound haemoglobin
involved in oxygen transport
86
role of sodium ions
involved in co-transport for absorption of glucose and amino acids in the ileum
87
role of phosphate ions
as a component of DNA, RNA and ATP
phosphodiester bond in DNA and RNA forms between the phosphate group and the pentose sugar
88
fatty acid structure
a carboxyl group and a long hydrocarbon chain
can be saturated or unsaturated
89
describe how an ester bond forms?
a condensation reaction between glycerol and a fatty acid (RCOOH)
90
what is the R group of a fatty acid?
the hydrocarbon chain
it can be saturated or unsaturated
91
explain the arrangement of phospholipids in a cell-surface membrane
in water, phospholipids form a bilayer
hydrophobic (fatty acid) tails point away, as they are repelled from water
hydrophilic (phosphate) heads point to and are attracted to water
92
describe DNA replication
DNA helicase unwinds DNA double helix and breaks its hydrogen bonds
both strands act as template strands
free floating DNA nucleotides are attracted to their complementary base pairs on exposed strands, with which they form hydrogen bonds
DNA polymerase catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides
93
describe the structure of an RNA molecule
relatively short single polynucleotide chain
contains the base uracil (instead of thymine), and the sugar ribose (instead of deoxyribose)
94
ATP structure
a nucleotide derivative
formed from ribose, adenine, and 3 phosphate groups
95
state 5 important properties of water
metabolite
solvent
high specific heat capacity
large latent heat of vaporisation
strong cohesion between water molecules
96
what are the roles of inorganic ions in the body?
occur in cytoplasm and body fluids in varying concentrations
H+ ions: affect pH
Fe2+ ions: component of haemoglobin
Na+ ions: involved in co-transport of glucose and amino acids
PO4^3- ions: found in DNA and ATP (form phosphodiester bonds)
97
true or false:
'all living organisms contain a wide variety of carbon-based compounds that function in entirely different ways'
false
all organisms contain only a few groups of carbon-based compounds that interact in similar ways. this provides indirect evidence for evolution
98
true or false:
'glucose, galactose and fructose are all monosaccharides'
true
99
true or false:
'glycogen and cellulose are both formed from alpha glucose'
false
glycogen is formed from alpha glucose, but cellulose is formed from beta glucose
100
true or false:
'phospholipids contain 3 fatty acid chains to attached to glycerol'
false
phospholipids contain 2 fatty acid chains; the third is replaced by a phosphate group
101
true or false:
'a peptide bond is formed by a condensation reaction between two amino acids'
true
102
true or false:
'the induced-fit model suggests that the active site of an enzyme is always exactly complementary to the substrate'
false
in the induced-fit model, the active site moulds around the substrate, becoming complementary as it binds
103
true or false:
'DNA is a double-stranded helix held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs'
true
104
true or false:
'water has a low latent heat of vaporisation, which helps organisms cool down easily without loosing too much water'
false
water has a high latent heat of vaporisation, so it provides a cooling effect with minimal water loss
105
nucleus structure
nuclear pores, nucleolus, DNA and nuclear envelope
105
cell membrane function
selectively permeable barrier
controls passage of substances in and out the cell
barrier between internal and external cell environments
106
cell membrane structure
phospholipid bilayer with embedded intrinsic & extrinsic proteins
106
nucleus function
site of transcription and pre-mRNA splicing - mRNA production
site of DNA replication
nucleolus makes ribosomes
nuclear pores allows movement of substances to/from cytoplasm
107
mitochondria structure
double membrane with inner membrane folded into cristae
70S ribosomes in matrix
small, circular DNA
enzymes in matrix
108
mitochondria function
site of aerobic respiration
produces ATP
108
chloroplast structure
thylakoid membranes stacked to form grana, lined by lamellae
stroma contains enzymes
contains starch granules, small circular DNA and 70S ribosomes
108
chloroplast function
chlorophyll absorbs light for photosynthesis to produce organic molecules (glucose)
109
lysosome function
contains digestive enzymes
e.g: lysozymes to hydrolyse pathogens/cell waste products
109
lysosome structur
type of golgi vesicle containing digestive enzymes
109
golgi apparatus structure
fluid-filled, membrane-bound sacs (horseshoe shaped)
vesicles at edge
109
golgi apparatus function
modifies proteins received from rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
packages them into vesicles to transport to cell membrane for exocytosis
makes lysosomes
109
what organisms contain chloroplasts?
plants
algae
110
smooth endoplasmic reticulum function
synthesises and processes lipids
110
rough endoplasmic reticulum function
site of protein synthesis
folds polypeptides to secondary and tertiary structures
packaging into vesicles to transport to golgi
111
ribosome sturcture
small and large subunit
made of protein and rRNA
free floating in cytoplasm and bound to rER
70S in prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts
80S in eukaryotes
112
cell wall function
provides structural strength, rigidity and support to cell
helps resist osmotic pressures
112
ribosome function
site of translation in protein synthesis
113
rough endoplasmic reticulum structure
system of membranes with bound ribosomes
continuous with nucleus
114
smooth endoplasmic reticulum structure
system of membranes with no bound ribosomes
115
cell wall structure
in plants, fungal and bacterial cells
plants = made of microfibrils of cellulose
fungi = made of chitin
bacteria = murein/
peptidoglycan
116
cell vacuole structure
fluid-filled
surrounded by a single membrane called a tonoplast
117
contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
prokaryotic cells are smaller
prokaryotes have no membrane bound organelles
prokaryotes have smaller 70S ribosomes
prokaryotes have no nucleus - circular DNA not associated with histones
prokaryotic cell wall made of murein, instead of cellulose/ chitin
118
occasional features of prokaryotes?
plasmids = loops of DNA
(slime) capsule surrounding cell wall = helps agglutination + adds protection
flagella = for movement
119
cell vacuole function
makes cell turgid - structural support
temporary store of sugars, amino acids
coloured pigments attract pollinators
120
protein channels
tubes filled with water, enabling water-soluble ions to pass through the membrane
selective
channel proteins only open in the presence of certain ions when they bind to the protein
120
protein carriers
bind with a molecule (e.g: glucose) which causes a change in the shape of the protein
this change in shape enables the molecule to be released, to the other side of the membrane
121
features of virsuses
non-living and acellular
contains genetic material, capsid and attachment proteins
some (HIV) contain a lipid envelope + enzymes (reverse transcriptase)
122
3 types of microscopes
optical (light) microscopes
scanning electron microscopes (SEM)
transmission electron microscopes (TEM)
123
magnification
how many times larger the image is compared to the object
calculated by equation:
magnification = image size/ actual size
124
resolution
the minimum distance between two objects in which they can still be viewed as separate
determined by wavelength of light (for optical microscopes) or electrons (for electron microscopes)
125
optical microscopes
beam of light used to create image
glass lens used for focusing
2D coloured image produced
125
what wavelength is longer: visible light or electrons?
visible light has a longer wavelength than electrons
126
evaluate optical microscopes
- poorer resolution, as long wavelength of light - small organelles not visible
- lower magnification
+ can view living samples
+ simple staining method
+ vacuum not required
127
transmission electron microscopes
beam of electrons passes through the sample used to create an image
focused using electromagnets
2D, black & white image produced
can see internal ultrastructure of cell
structures absorb electrons and appear dark
128
evaluate TEMs
+ high resolving power
+ high magnification
- extremely thin specimens required
- complex staining method
- specimen must be dead
- vacuum required
129
scanning electron microscopes
beam of electrons pass across sample used to create image
focused using electromagnets
3D, black and white image produced
electrons scattered across specimen producing image
130
evaluate SEMs
+ high resolving power
+ high magnification
+ thick specimens usable
- complex staining method
- specimen must be dead
- vacuum required
131
why calibrate eyepiece graticule?
calibration of the eyepiece is required each time the objective lens is changed
calibration to work out the distance between each division at that magnification
132
purpose of cell fractionation
break open cells & remove debris
so organelles can be studied
133
homogenisation
process by which cells are broken open, so organelles are free to be separated
done using homogeniser (blender)
134
homogenisation conditions
cold = reduces enzyme activity, preventing organelle digestion
isotonic = prevents movement of water by osmosis - no bursting/shrivelling of organelles
buffered = resist pH changes, preventing organelle + enzyme damage
134
differential centrifugation
supernatant first out (spun at lowest speed) is most dense = nuclei
spun at higher speeds
nuclei --> chloroplasts --> mitochondria --> lysosomes --> rER/sER --> ribosomes (least dense)
135
ultra-centrifugation
homogenate solution filtered of to remove cell debris
solution placed in a centrifuge, which spins at a lower speed initially
then increasing faster speeds, to separate organelles according to their density
136
binary fission
involves circular DNA & plasmids replicating
cytokinesis creates two daughter nuclei
each daughter cell has one copy of circular DNA and a variable number of plasmids
137
cell cycle
1) interphase (G1, S, G2)
2) nuclear division = mitosis or meiosis
3) cytokinesis
138
interphase
longest stage in the cell cycle
when DNA replicates (s-phase) and organelles duplicate while cell grows (G1 & G2 - phase)
DNA replicates and appears as two sister chromatids held by centromere
139
mitosis
one round of cell division
two diploid, genetically identical daughter cells
growth and repair (e.g: clonal expansion)
comprised of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
140
prophase
chromosomes condense and become visible
nuclear envelope disintegrates
in animals, centrioles separate & spindle fibre structure forms
140
metaphase
chromosomes align along equator of cell
spindle fibres released from poles, now attach to centromere and chromatid
141
anaphase
spindle fibre contracts (using ATP) to pull chromatids, centromere first, towards opposite poles of cell
centromere divides in two
142
telophase
chromosomes at each pole become longer and thinner again
spindle fibre disintegrate + nucleus reforms
143
mitotic index
used to determine proportion of cells undergoing mitosis
calculated as a % or a decimal
mitotic index = (number of cells in mitosis) / (total number of cells)
x 100 (for %)
143
fluid mosaic model
describes the lateral movement of membranes
with scattered embedded intrinsic and extrinsic proteins
membrane contains glycoproteins, glycolipids, phospholipids and cholesterol
144
cholesterol
present in eukaryotic organisms to restrict lateral movement of membranes
adds rigidity to membrane = resistance to high temp & prevents water + dissolved ions leaking out
144
facilitated diffusion
passive process using protein channels/ carriers
down the conc gradient
used for ions and polar molecules, e.g: sodium ions
and large molecules, e.g: glucose
145
phospholipids in membrane
phospholipids align as a bilayer
hydrophilic heads are attracted to water
hydrophobic tails repelled by water
145
selectively permeable membrane
molecules must have specific properties to pass through plasma membrane:
- lipid soluble (hormones, e.g: oestrogen)
- very small molecules
- non-polar molecules (oxygen)
145
simple diffusion
net movement of molecules from an area of higher conc to an area of lower conc
until equilibrium is reached
passive
146
osmosis
net movement of water
from an area of higher water potential to an area of lower (more negative) water potential
across a partially permeable membrane
146
water potential
the pressure created by water molecules
measured in kPa and represented by symbol Ψ
pure water has a water potential is 0kPa
the more negative the water potential, the more solute must be dissolved
147
hypertonic solution
when the water potential of a solution is more negative then the cell
water moves out of the cell by osmosis
both animal and plant cells will shrink ad shrivel
147
hypotonic solution
when the water potential of a solution is more positive (close to zero) than the cell
water moves into the cell by osmosis
animal cells will lyse (burst)
plant cells will become turgid
148
isotonic
when the water potential of the surrounding solution is the same as the water potential inside the cell
no net movement in water
cells would remain the same mass
149
co-transport
the movement of two substances across a membrane together, when one is unable to cross the membrane itself
involves a co-transport protein
e.g: absorption of glucose. amino acids from lumen of intestine
149
role of carrier protein in active transport
when molecules bind to the receptor, ATP will bind to protein on inside of membrane, and is hydrolysed to ADP + Pi
protein changes shape and opens inside membrane
149
active transport
the movement of ions and molecules from an area of lower conc to an area of higher conc, using ATP and carrier proteins
carrier proteins act as selective pumps to move substances
149
what molecules can lymphocytes identify?
- pathogen (bacteria, fungi, viruses)
- cells from other organisms of the same species (transplants)
- abnormal body cells (tumour cells)
- toxins (released from bacteria)
150
antigens
proteins on the cell-surface membrane
triggers an immune response when detected by lymphocytes
151
antigenic variability
when pathogenic
152
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biology
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
-
1. biological molecules161
-
2. cells235
-
3. exchange and mass transport202
-
4. genetic variation, protein synthesis and mutations259
-
5. energy transfers in & between organisms289
-
6. response to change to enviro264
-
7. genetics, populations, evolution and ecosystems1
-
8. control of gene expression1
-
estruch flashc213
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a*38
-
required practicals21
-
maths, stats and equations36
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essay2
-
kw sheets stuff1
