What are 3 types of relationships with animals?
- Utility – farming or hunting, where animals provide food, milk, clothes, goods, etc.
- Defence – protect themselves from potentially dangerous or wild animals, pest control or animal experiments.
- Affection – pets, companion animals, animals involved in hobbies or recreation, observing wild animals or captive animals. Unlike in the other two relationships, the life and welfare of the animals concerned is generally integral to the relationship (the other 2 has generally this in opposition).
What is cognitive dissonance?
When people perceive that 2 of their beliefs are inconsistent, the internal state of cognitive dissonance arises. Trying to accommodate affection and utility/defence relationships is a cognitive dissonance.
Describe some cultural and individual responses to cognitive dissonance.
- Acceptance/recompense: ritual and apologising is common in pre-agricultural societies
- Embrace utility: animals are different, avoidance of sentimentality, animals cannot suffer and have no “souls” is common in agricultural societies and in modern, urban societies.
- Embrace affection: focus on “cute” animals, pets, etc, avoidance of meat or other animal product consumption is common in modern, urban societies.
- Distancing: pre-packaged foods, division of labour is common in modern, urban societies.
Distinguish sentience and consciousness.
Consciousness – to be or the capacity to be aware and experience.
Sentience – the quality of being able to experience feelings.
Define a stakeholder.
Stakeholder – a person with an interest or concern in something.
List some possible stakeholders in relationships with animals.
- Veterinarians
- Dog owner
- Big game hunter
- Livestock farmer
- Show jumper
- Meat eater
- Social scientist
- Bird watcher
- Vegan
- Racehorse owner
- Subsistent hunter
- Animal scientist
What is an ethical dilemma an d some examples in practice?
An ethical dilemma is making a moral choice/to do the right thing that encompasses a value judgement. In society this can be reflected in laws or in moral conversations.
- Convenience euthanasia
- Request for excessive/futile treatment
- Financial limitations to treatment
What are the consequences of poor ethical reasoning?
- Poor ethical decisions
- Erosion of trust in individual/profession
- Moral stress
- Stress and burnout
- Mental health morbidity/suicidality
Name the 3 ethical theories.
Utilitarianism
Deontology
Virtue theory
What is utilitarianism?
Cost-benefit analysis. The consequence of any choice must be considered and “the greatest good for the greatest number” and “the lesser of 2 evils” are principle.
What are the problems with utilitarianism?
- People do not always agree on what is a harm or a benefit
- Weighting up items in different ‘currencies’
- Can be difficult to estimate the consequences of our actions
- Individual rights are barely considered
What is deontology?
Following a rule regardless of the consequences. Application of the rules is the same in every similar situation. Can encompass individual rights, which are often the basis for law.
What are the problems with deontology?
- Often considered too rigid to be practical
- Outcome may not result in the greatest good
- Rules may conflict and so utilitarian balancing may be required
What is virtue theory?
Being a good person. Intelligence is not enough and good character must come first. If we can be a good person/veterinary surgeon/nurse then we will naturally do the right thing. Virtues such as conscientiousness, discernment, integrity, trustworthiness and compassion.
What are the problems with virtue theory?
- We do not necessarily know or agree on what a good person is
- Virtues may conflict
- The focus is on the person and others can be mere vehicles we use to make us look good
What are ethical frameworks?
- Decision making tools
- Help put ethical principles and theories into practice in real life
- Help make better ethical decisions
Describe the structure of an ethical framework.
- Identify possible courses of action
- Establish the interests of affected parties
- Identify the ethical issues involved
- Establish the legal position of the dilemma
- Choose a course of action
- Minimise the impact of the decision
What are the guiding principles of medical ethics?
Apply each principle to each stakeholder to ensure all interests are considered.
- Non-maleficence – do no harm
- Beneficence – do good
- Autonomy
- Justice
What is Bateson’s Cube?
Used to weight up the costs and benefits in utilitarianism.
Uses high tp low axis in 3 dimensions: quality of research, certainty of medical benefit and animal suffering
What are the 3 Rs of animal research?
Replacement of sentient animals with non-living or non-sentience alternatives, use of less/ non-sentient organisms, in vitro techniques, non-biological replacements (in silico), human studies
Reduction in the numbers of animal used to an absolute minimum – pooling resources, appropriate statistics, avoiding repetition despite replication of findings being important.
Refinement of housing, husbandry and experiments to improve animal welfare – use of anaesthesia and analgesia, human endpoints, evaluating and refining husbandry and housing conditions.
