What is the difference between external relations and foreign policy?
External relations is the broader picture, encompassing all interactions with other countries and actors (trade, culture, diplomacy, etc.). It’s about managing all your connections.
Foreign policy is the strategic side, focusing on the specific goals a country pursues in these interactions and the actions taken to achieve them (negotiations, alliances, etc.).
Why did the EU external relations and foreign policy evolve parallely?
- As EEC trade agreements were the external relations. More integrated market = foreign policy tools for adressing different issues.
- EU didn’t not always have a unified foreign policy. In the first phase (1950-1969) the European Communty was neglecting the external dimention. It’s external relations were the external results of its internal policies (CAP) and trade agreements. In the second phase (1970-1992) the external dimension has emerged. Political cooperation has deepened with establishment of the EPC (1973), widening, and international development. In the third phase (1993-2009) the external dimention has expanded. Emergence of the EU foreign policy with the CFSP/ESDP, establishment of EMU, Justice and home affairs + neighbourhood policy.
- 1950-1969: external relations - trade agreements (GATT) and external dimentions of internal policies (CAP). Foreign policy - was less developed as focus remained on economic integration. 1970-1992: external relations - strong focus on trade deals and cmmon customs tariffs. Foreign policy was emerging and primarily relied on international trade agreements. 1993-2009: external relations - included involvement in humanitaria aid, environmental agreements and limited foreign policy coordination. Foreign policy: CFSP was established + EPC. 2010-nowadays: external action - the EU negotiates trade agreements, participates in diplomatic missions, has a stronger global security presence. Foreign policy - the Lisbon Treatyy strengtthened the CFSP and established EEAS.
- There has been a gradual shift from an economic focus to a broader range of political and security concerns in both external relations and foreign policy.
- The legal basis for EU external actions has evolved from implicit powers in the EEC Treaty to dedicated treaties and institutions like the CFSP and the EEAS.
4 phases of evolution
- (1950-1969): neglect of the external dimension
* economic integration -> trade + ext. dimension of internal policies (CAP) - (1970-1992): emergence of the external dimension
* political cooperation -> EPC + widening + international development - (1993-2009): expansion of the external dimension
* CFSP/ESDP + EMU + JHA + neighbourhood - (2010- today): diversification of the external dimension
* humanitarian assitance + CSDP + AFSJ + energy + environment
Legal basis for the EU external relations
- the EEC has legal personality: right to external representation, negotiation, sign international agreements
- the EEC is an international actor - it can interact with third states and organizations, legally and politically distinguishable from its member states
- the EEC’s international action is governed by legal rules that have an internal and external dimentions
- the EEC has agents that allow it to make decisions and representation at the global stage (Council of Ministers and European Commission). The EU’s agents are High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affers and Security Policy and European External Action Service.
The EEC’s Expanding External Representation
The EEC actively pursued its legal rights to engage internationally, establishing offices and delegations around the world.
* 1954 - ECSC Information Office in Washington
* 1956 - liaison offices (focused on promoting trade and economic cooperation) in London, Ireland, Chile
* EEC - 18 developing countries received contrôleurs techniques, which were likely technical advisors or experts supporting development projects.
* 1964 - the establishment of EEC delegations at: OECD (Paris), UN (Geneva), GATT (Geneva), UN Headquarters (New York: Information Office)
* 1970s - delegations of the Commission of the European Communities with diplomatic status. Contrôleurs délégués were replaced by Delegates of the European Commission
* 1974 - UN General Assembly resolution granted the EEC observer status
* 1977 - 50 representations across the world (41 in developing countries, 2 information offices (Ankara, Athens), 7 delegations of the diplomatic type)
* 1980s - delegations specifically focused on development cooperation in developing countries received diplomatic status
* today - 140 delegations to states, 24 delegation to IOs, 12 civilian missions, 9 military missions, 33 election observations, EU special representatives, EU special envoys
Institutional changes in European Integration
- 1958, Treaty of Rome (establishing the EEC)
- 1987, Single European Act
- 1993, Treaty of Maastricht (establishing the EU)
- 1999, Treaty of Amsterdam
- 2003, Treaty of Nice
- 2009, Treaty of Lisbon amending Treaty on EU and Treaty on the Functioning of the EU
Substantial areas of EUEA (vertical)
- Trade cooperation: integaration of DCs and LDCs into the global economy, economic growth, free and fair trade.
- Development cooperation: eradication of poverty, sustainable development, social and environmental development of DCs.
- Humanitarian aid: aid and relief to populations
Tensions in the areas of EUEA
Geopolitical focus: geographical areas that the EU should prioritize in its foreign policy (European vs Atlantic solidarity)
Duplication/Competition: Competition or overlap between the EU’s and MS foreign policy efforts
Economic and Political/Military power: the type of power that the EU should use in its foreign policy
Soft vs Hard power: the methods the EU should use in its foreign policy
Parallel systems of decision-making: intergovernmental (member states), community (EU) and mixed (both) methods. External vs Internal objectives. Reality-expectation gap
Types of EU policies
- regulative - EU rules governing the selected policies (internal market, transport, energy, environment)
- redistributive - rules on EU budget allocation aimed at financial solidarity, collective good (cohesion, EU budget, R&D)
- coordinative - soft policy prescription at the EU level in the fields of MSs sovereign policies (education, fiscal coordination, youth, culture, tourism)
regulative and redistributive - community method
Institutional framework of EUEA
- Proposal/formulation
- Decision-making
* Community method:
ordinary legislative procedure (air quality):
Commission: Drafts proposals and co-implements decisions
Council: approves proposals and co-implementation decisions with weighted votes and qualified majority voting
Parliament: directly elected body that acts as a co-decision maker alongside the Council.
Direct applicability of decisions: EU regulations take effect automatically in all member states without needing to be transposed into national law
special legislative procedures (taxation):
Consultation: Parliament provides advice on a proposal, but the Council makes the final decision.
Approval: Parliament must approve a Council decision before it can take effect.
* Intergovernmental method (ECOFIN: Economic and Financial Affairs Council, JHA: Justice and Home Affairs Council, GAC: General Affairs Council (deals with foreign policy, security, and other horizontal issues), FAC: Foreign Affairs Council):
MSs propose
Council decides (consensus or unanimity)
MSs implement - Policy implementation
Competences of the EU in the policy making process
EU has a legal personality and has the capacity to act, however only within the powers given to it by MS. MS have right to act internationally, unless the EU law restricts it. Competences influence the decision-making process.
EU has a competence to act internationally: express attribution of competence (the Treaty states that the EU can act externally (trade)), implied attribution of competence (conferral of an internal competence (energy) or from neccessity)
Main external competencies of the EU (determined by the EEC): to implement common commercial policy, to conclude association agreements, to cooperate with IGOs
* exclusive (only EU: customs union, competition rules, monetary policy, fisheries, common commercial policy, international agreements)
* shared (the EU and MSs, the MS can act only if the EU has chosen not to: internal market, ariculture and fisheries, environment, transport, energy, health safety. R&D, space, development cooperation and humanitarian aid are done by both EU and MS)
* coordinative (competence to support, coordinate or supplement: industry, tourism, culture, education, civil protection)
* “no”
Decision-making procedures
- QMW
- unanimity
- co-decision
- consent
Evolution of internal and external policies
- 1958 - Rome
internal: trade (FTA), consumer protection. internal +: external trade (customs union), CAP and fisheries. external: development cooperation - 1973 - Davingon report
exterenal: EPC - 1975 - EC Conclusions
internal: terrorism, radicalism, extremism, and international violence. - 1976 - Council Resolutions
internal: common policies on education. - 1987 - Single European Act
internal and internal+: environmental, economic and social cohesion policies. - 1986 - Schengen agreement
internal: free movement of persons. internal+: visa, asylum, and single border policy - 1993 - Maastricht
internal: internal market, EU citizenship, transport. internal+: JHA (police cooperation, border control, immigration, asylum, judicial cooperation, and civil protection). external: CFSP - 1993, 1995 - Council conclusions
external: enlargement policy - 1999 - Amsterdam
internal+: EMU, common currency Euro, Schengen within EU system. external: CSDP - 2003 - Nice
internal: judicial cooperation, industrial policy - 2009 - Lisbon
internal+: climate change, energy, European Space Policy. external: EEAS, EU representation with UN GA, civiliam crisis management
Bretherton and Vogler’s model of EU actorness
Opportunity: external environment surrounding the EU (global events and ideas). Favorable conditions, like international crises or issues where the EU has expertise (e.g., trade), create opportunities for the EU to take action and potentially shape global responses. Conversely, if global issues don’t align with the EU’s strengths or internal priorities, the EU’s ability to act decisively might be limited.
Presence: the EU’s capacity to exert influence beyond its borders simply by virtue of its existence. Factors like its economic power, large internal market, and regulatory framework all contribute to the EU’s presence on the global stage. An established presence allows the EU to potentially influence global norms and standards even without taking specific actions.
Capability: the EU’s internal processes and its ability to translate presence and opportunity into concrete action.
Power
Power as capability: Eu’s sources of power as the capability to act and influence third parties by means of internal resources which are activated by FP goals and FP instruments: hard (military and economic) and soft (economic and diplomatic).
Power as influence: the results of the use of power as capability. Stems from its ability to leverage its foreign policy tools effectively to achieve desired outcomes. Refers to the status in the IC.
Explanations of external governance
External governance refers to the ways the European Union (EU) influences and shapes the behavior of actors beyond its borders. It’s about the EU projecting its own regulatory models, rules, and governance practices to other countries. These institutions act as a template for spreading EU policies, rules, and ways of doing things (modes) to other countries.
* Institutionalist: external governance is shaped by EU institutions. Both the normative **influence (sociological) **and the practical benefits (rational) contribute to the spread of EU policies and rules. Formalizing these arrangements (legalization) and ensuring they are perceived as beneficial (legitimacy) increases the effectiveness of the EU’s external governance efforts.
* Power-based: the EU’s external influence stems from its relative power and the level of interdependence with other countries. Asymmetry and bargaining power in this interdependence, with the EU holding more leverage, is crucial for the EU to impose its governance model.
* Domestic structures: compatibility with the EU model, a strong rule of law, efficient administration, and a manageable number of veto players all contribute to a more effective implementation of EU norms and policies.
Principles of external governance
- Regional integration (intensive multilateralism)
- Creation and regulation of internal market (establishing regulatiry framework for other markets)
- Observance of human rights, enforcement of basic democratic principles, existence of the rule of law
Mechanisms of external governance
Direct: conditionality and socialisation
Indirect: externalisation (outsourcing border control measures, delegating development programs, or collaborating with regional organizations), imitation
Coherence and Consistency
Coherence: internal coordination between EU policies.
Consistency: the allignment of external policies of the MSs and of the EU.
Effectiveness
External goal achievement: power (capability) and legitimacy (recognition). Challenges: “split” authority, complex global context. Not presence (unintended consequences). Evaluating external impact: performance of organizations (goal achievement, relevance, efficiency, ability) and goal achievement (quality of the policy objective, engagement, goal achievement). EU is more effective on international arena if it has common position and the right strategy.
Unintended consequences
Unintended consequences are outcomes of purposive action(s) that are not directly intended by an actor. Causes behind UC: complexity, cognitive/emotional biases, ignorance, error, values and interests, risk, indifference, contextual change
Trade policy
Objectives: internal - protection of domestic producers, competition, market enlargement. external - liberalisation of world trade, integrating LDCs into global market.
* TFEU (1957/58): trade in goods
* Maastricht (1993)
* AMSTERDAM TREATY (1999): new issues (agreement btw. EC and Council: intelectual property rights)
* NICE TREATY (2003): inclusion of services
* LISBON TREATY (2009): inclusion of new issues (FDI)
Commission - prepares, negotiates, proposes the trade agreements
Council - decides jointly with Parliment whether to approve
Parliament - decides with Council
ordinary legislative procedure, Council QMW
Multilateral - WTO
Bilateral - EU-Mexico
Unilateral - Everything but arms, Generalised system of preferences
Development policy
Based on * TFEU (1957/58)
* Maastricht (1993) - complementary and mutually reinforcing, coordinate developmental policies, consistency.
* Cotonou agreement
* Samoa agreement
3 core documents: European Comsensus on Development, Policy coherence for development, development effectiveness.
Aid efficiency, untied aid, aid conditionality.
Common Foreign and Security Policy
CFSP serves as a central framework for the EU’s external actions, shaping its diplomatic efforts, international partnerships, and overall approach to global affairs. As the EU seeks to become a more prominent player in international relations, the CFSP is likely to gain even greater importance.
CSDP - PESCO (Permanent Structural Cooperation). Functions: leading-rle in peace-keeping, conflict prevention, strengthening of int relations, protect the Union, peace and securtiy.
Maastricht (1993):
CFSP and common defence cooperation mentioned in the preable. Consensus for CFSP. Represebtation by presidential state within Council.
Amsterdam (1997):
Introduced common strategies and redefined common positions and joint actions. Constructive abstantions. High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy.
Nice (2001/2003): Changes in the appointment of EU special representatives
Lisbon (2009): unanimity, QMV - selected cases. Constructive abstantion 1/3 states.
