Euthanasia

Question 1

voluntary euthanasia

Answer 1

when a person chooses to have their life ended usually because they’re suffering from an incurable or terminal illness and are in great pain

Question 2

non-voluntary euthanasia

Answer 2

when a person’s life is ended without their consent usually because they’re unable to express their wishes

consent of someone representing their interests is required e.g. a doctor or courts may decide that a person in a PVS should have their life sustaining treatment removed

Question 3

active euthanasia

Answer 3

to take an active step with the intention of killing the patient e.g. injecting potassium chloride to induce a heart attack

illegal in Britain regardless of whether it is voluntary or not
considered to be murder
‘assisted suicide’ and ‘mercy killing’

Question 4

passive euthanasia

Answer 4

withdrawal of life prolonging treatment
not illegal if judged by a doctor to be better for the patient to be allowed to die by natural course of the illness than to live
law accepts continued life in some cases is worse than death
can be illegal if doctor permits withdrawal of treatment when it is not in the best interests of the patient

Question 5

indirect euthanasia

Answer 5

administering pain relief which has a side affect of shortening life e.g. morphine
widely practiced and generally legal as long as the INTENTION is to relieve suffering and not to kill

Question 6

what is the Pope John Paul II quote about euthanasia

Answer 6

“euthanasia here means an action that by its nature or intention causes death with the purpose of putting an end to all suffering”

“euthanasia is therefore a matter of intention and method”

Question 7

discuss UK law and euthanasia

Answer 7

• criminal offence until 1961
• 1961 Suicide Act decriminalised it but did not make it morally legitimate
• suicide is now legal
• anyone who aids the suicide of another can be sentenced for 14 years
• many think the law now supports the principle of autonomy but it in fact reinforces the sanctity of life by criminalising any form of assisted suicide

Question 8

what is the ‘sanctity of life’

Answer 8

• notion in Judeo-Christian tradition that human lives according to NL is due a special reverence
• as human life is a gift from God it possess an intrinsic worth and value meaning it cannot be taken away by others

Question 9

where is the foundation of the ‘sanctity of life’ found in the Bible

Answer 9

• belie that humans are made in the image of God
• “God created man in his image” (Genesis 1:27)
• many say image of God motif means we are different from all other creatures as we have a spark of divinity empowering us to act as God’s stewards
• God said “be fruitful and multiply, fill the earth and subdue it”

Question 10

where is the sanctity of life most obviously revealed for Christians

Answer 10

• incarnation
• “the word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we saw his glory, full of grace and truth” (John)
• provides powerful underpinning to Christian anthropology that celebrates the claim that God saw all he made and “indeed it was good” (Genesis)
• affirmation that God as our ‘author’ only has the right to decide when we die
• “the lord gave and the Lord has taken away”

Question 11

discuss the secular understanding of the sanctity of life

Answer 11

• can believe without belief in God
• human life possess intrinsic value in its own right
• Kant’s Categorical Imperative - every human is valued for the reason they are human
• being human confers a special dignity that cannot be diminished
• Kant’s formula of humanity (one of his three absolutes) states we must “never treat a person as a means to an end but instead as an end in themselves”

Question 12

what approach do people who oppose the sanctity of life take

Answer 12

• quality of life that is important

- an instrumentalist view

Question 13

what is the quality of life argument

Answer 13

• wrong to say all life is precious (sanctity)
• but there are instances when a life ceases to be worth living and protecting
• instrumentalist view

Question 14

what is an instrumentalist view of life

Answer 14

• life is only worthwhile if it can fulfil those things which make life worth living
• nothing intrinsically good about being alive except as a means of enabling us to experience those things which are desired

Question 15

dignity

Answer 15

• humans should be able to maintain it till the end of their lives
• not a matter of pain but self-respect
• if someone’s standard of living means they no longer want to live they should be able to end their life or before they reach the stage of needing help going to the toilet e.g.
• one major argument for voluntary euthanasia is that it helps people die with dignity

Question 16

what three key ideas is the quality of life based on

Answer 16

• happiness
• autonomy
• consciousness

Question 17

quality of life (happiness)

Answer 17

• whether unhappiness outweighs happiness
• there are minimum standards required to live a happy life which can be judged:
• memory
• ability to form relationships
• ability to reason/hope for the future
• for some a person who considered their life lacks value is justified in wanting to end their life and should be assisted - voluntary E

Question 18

why do people support voluntary euthanasia

Answer 18

• shows mercy for those suffering with intolerable pain or from an incurable disease
• English humanist Moore argued when a patient suffers pain and there is no hope of recovery or ease they may choose to die
• merciful opportunity to end needless suffering which we offer to animals who can’t even express their wishes and should offer to humans too!

Question 19

quality of life (autonomy)

Answer 19

• value of life comes from ability to determine one’s own future or have self-rule
• Mill argued in matters that do not concern others individuals should have full autonomy
• “over himself, over his body and mind, the individual is sovereign”
• we expect to have control over our bodies in matters of life and it should be the same in matters of death

Question 20

what does the VES (Voluntary Euthanasia Society) argue

Answer 20

• every human being deserves respect and has the right to choose their own destiny including how they live and die
• controversial American doctor Jack Kevorkian said in 1988:
• “in my view the highest principle in medical ethics - in any kind of ethics - is personal autonomy”
• should be an option for a competent adult who is able and willing to make such a decision
• should be offered alongside palliative care

Question 21

quality of life (consciousness)

Answer 21

• Glover argues being alive is not itself a sufficient condition for life being valuable
• life must be conscious to be worthwhile
• taking life is only wrong if that life is conscious
• instrumentalist view - body only important in so far as it enables conscious experiences to be possible

Question 22

why does non-voluntary euthanasia come about

Answer 22

• cases where patients cannot make their wishes known perhaps as in a comatose state from which recovery is unlikely or impossible
• also case for babies born with possibly deteriorating and pain causing health issues
• withdrawal of treatment (passive) or use of medicines (active) may bring about non-voluntary euthanasia

Question 23

where does the controversy with withdrawal lie

Answer 23

• withdrawing treatment that doesn’t benefit or just extends the suffering of a patient is not that controversial
• issue is withdrawing food and water

Question 24

discuss the Case Study of Tony Bland

Answer 24

• victim of 1989 Hillsborough disaster
• survived but left in coma from which he would never recover (PVS)
• body can breathe and main organs function
• could open his eyes but didn’t respond to anything around him
• could not eat but could digest so had feeding tube
• no cure but he was not dying
• ended up in court over whether it was right to withdraw his artificial feeding so leading to his death
• court allowed him to die through starvation and dehydration which seems painful/cruel if he was able to feel such pain
• though presumed not the case

Question 25

discuss the withdrawal of food and water

Answer 25

- 2005 Mental Capacity Act for England and Wales enshrines law in view that assisted food and fluids is a medical treatment that can be withdrawn - seems to take a step towards active involuntary euthanasia or even non-vol euthanasia - ethical challenge that doctors can be convinced a person will never recover or has a capacity for higher life function but can be sustained indefinitely

Question 26

what does Peter Singer argue

Answer 26

- should abandon sanctity in favour of quality of life principle - developed Locke's notion that the value of life depends on a person's ability to have desires and preferences, not the possession of a soul

Question 27

which of Singer's arguments have caused controversy

Answer 27

- the case of severely disabled babies - "if we compare a severely defective human infant with an animal, a pig, we often find the nonhuman to have superior capacities both actual and potential for rationality, self-consciousness, communication and anything else that can be considered morally significant"

Question 28

what are the different perspectives on the euthanasia of severely disabled babies

Answer 28

- as medical advances improve its possible to keep more physically disabled babies alive - some argue to allow them to live is to disable a family - 2006 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists urged health professionals to consider euthanasia for seriously disabled new-born babies to spare the emotional burden on the family - other are concerned that the precedent of actively killing a baby or withdrawing treatment to bring about quicker death cultivates a culture in which all disabled people are considered to be of less value

Question 29

summarise sanctity of life

Answer 29

- life never ceases to be sacred - sick/disabled never of less value because of the quality of life they possess - "a man is and always will be a man he will never become a 'vegetable' or an 'animal'" - "the intrinsic value and personal dignity of every human being does not change depending on their circumstances " (Pope John Paul II) - voluntary euthanasia is playing God - danger of people being forced to 'choose' it

Question 30

summarise quality of life

Answer 30

- there will be times when life is not deserved of protection - it is important that a person can exercise their autonomy and choose to end their life - better to end a life for the good of the person, their loved ones and society in general

Question 31

what is the difference between killing and letting die

Answer 31

- always been recognised that patients have the right to refuse treatment without been guilty of seeking death - treatment might be particularly burdensome or of little benefit - patient not legally obliged to do all they can to stay alive - obvious example is turning off life machine although the expected result is death the patient would then not be killed if they survived

Question 32

what is the principle of double effect

Answer 32

- in palliative care drugs are often administered even though there is knowledge that these will shorten the life of the patient - intention important here - intention to ease suffering not to kill - acceptable even for Catholics as death is just a side effect - end result is the same as deliberately killing someone but the intention is what makes it morally acceptable

Question 33

discuss the right to die

Answer 33

- people who support euthanasia do so on the ground people have a 'right to die' - argue in favour of autonomy - if life becomes intolerable they should be able to decide to end their suffering

Question 34

what four reasons make the 'right to die' controversial

Answer 34

- we do not live alone in this life, if we choose to end our life it will affect those around us - even if they understand the person's desire to be free from pain it is still (-) for them - it affects the whole of society - once granted to one person it can become a social norm or an expectation that can be forced on others - religious perspective - only God has the right to choose when we die - life belongs to God - it differs from suicide as it involves someone else - if we have right to die do we also have right to expect someone to help - (-) side effects on those involved - its also open to abuse from doctors and family members alike!

Question 35

what is the slipper slope argument against voluntary euthanasia

Answer 35

- patients who feel they are a burden may ask for VE out of a sense of duty or could be pressured into it by scheming family - present law demands medical profs protect life - fear if its legalised this changes - when abortion legalised it was trusted it would be used widespread only in extreme circumstances - this is obvs not the case - if Euthanasia becomes legalised may be expected even if the patient doesn't want to die - feel like a burden - choose it for sake of others - pressure as treatment expensive and complicated - could be seen as a drain on resources if cannot be cured - result in people receiving less and less treatment - slippery slope could lead to terminal illnesses not been treated at all

Question 36

statement against euthanasia by members of Michigan's Religious Leaders Forum

Answer 36

"those who promote this last fatal escape as a right should remembers that such a right may quickly become an expectation and even a duty to die" "we fear eventually some individuals and families will be forced to put financial concerns above the needs of loved ones"

Question 37

discuss for dying with dignity by active voluntary euthanasia

Answer 37

- argument for euthanasia is claim it helps people die with dignity before the reach stage of needing help with everything e.g.

Question 38

why do people argue you can die with dignity without active voluntary euthanasia

Answer 38

- those who argue against active voluntary euthanasia usually because of sanctity of life point to the Hospice Movement as a means of helping terminally ill die with dignity - provide excellent medical care and also spiritual and emotional support for the patient and their family - helped to face death - receive services that show they are valued until the last moments of their life

Question 39

Hospice Movement quote from Dame Cicely Saunders

Answer 39

"you matter because you are you. you matter to the last moment of your life and we will do all we can not only to help you die peacefully but also to live until you die"