what is suicide and assisted suicide?
SUICIDE = when a person dies as a direct result of their own voluntary action
ASSISTED SUICIDE = when a person dies as a direct result of their own voluntary action but with the help of another person (different to voluntary euthanasia)
what is physician aided suicide and dying?
PHYSICIAN AIDED SUICIDE = when a person dies as a direct result of their own voluntary action but with the help of a doctor or physician
PHYSICIAN AID IN DYING = when a person’s death is hastened but not directly caused by aid
what is voluntary and non-voluntary euthanasia?
VOLUNTARY = when a person’s death is directly caused by another person (such as a doctor) at their request
NON-VOLUNTARY = when a person’s life is ended without their consent but with the consent of someone who is charged with their interests
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
point 1, sanctity of life
• Vitalist principle – life is a gift from God, thus intrinsically valuable, “in the image of God he created them” (Genesis 1). Only God can choose when to end a life, “the Lord gave and the Lord has taken away” (Job 1) – ensures life is preserved and protected at all costs (PRIMARY PRECEPTS), in line with the Hippocratic Oath – save lives and abstain from harm.
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
quality of life criticism of sanctity of life
- Ronald Dworkin, in ‘Life Dominion’, points out that life is a gift, not a burden; sanctity encompasses preservation but also a high quality – Dianne Petty 2002 Motor Neurone disease, denied the right to die thus lived a low quality of life forcing people to stay alive disrespects not only their autonomy, but the sanctity of their life, as its quality diminishes
- Peter Singer offers an instrumentalist view of the body, arguing it is useful insofar as it allows for preferences and desires to be fulfilled – no intrinsic worth and to think so leads to immoral and inhumane decision making
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
stable society criticism of SE
• Many argue it is impossible to judge when life becomes worthless; people may be coerced into thinking their life is of a diminished quality. Pope Paul in Evangelium Vitae argued legalising euthanasia results in devaluing human life and a culture of death – Nazi eugenics programme.
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
best interests defence of SE against NL
- Helga Kushe, a utilitarian philosopher, has argued that in the Netherlands the slippery slope does not occur as euthanasia is regulated by legal practise – the example of Nazi eugenics would not occur in democratic societies and is an extreme case.
- By following the values commonly applied to medical ethics, Benefice (acting in the best interests of the patient) and non-maleficence (first, do no harm), one can see that Diane Petty should have been allowed the right to die – religious deontological morality jeopordises the interests of patients in favour of moral absolutes; leads to puritanism.
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
NL deontological, point 2
Better to act in a deontological way as not all patients can express their interests or of a sound mind due to an illness – Tony bland PVS, impossible to act according to his best interests
• Jonathan Glover, in ‘Causing Death and Saving Lives’ has argued that if they are making the decision in a diminished mental state then they are not truly autonomous the decision must be “properly thought out, not merely the result of a temporary emotional state. Patients may not be able to decipher their best interests as the illness may bring about confusion or depression, which could be temporary when the impact of euthanasia is permanent.
• By providing them with palliative care we avoid involuntary euthanasia, which may or may not go against the will of the patient.
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
situationism agape criticism of glover and nl deontological
• Clearly there are many cases of euthanasia, thus highlighting we cannot act in accordance to absolute rules – must act situationally, following the principle of agape: charitable, unconditional love. “Justice is love distributed” – tough love.
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
DDE defence of NL
- Actions can have complex and unforeseen consequences, and therefore must be judged on intended effects. If a doctor attempts to treat a terminally ill patient with painkiller in order to remove their pain, yet the patient dies as a result, Aquinas would argue they had not committed an immoral act as the consequence was unintended.
- Gerard J. Hughes suggests in his book “Christian Ethics: An introduction” (1998) that Natural Law is intimately in tune with human nature and by focusing on following conscience and practical reason allows a margin for error as long as intentions were to follow good.
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
consequentialist criticism of NL
• Not only is DE arguably an impractical aspect of the theory (insofar as intentions can never be proven) it also seems rather contradictory to the theory’s deontological rooting Surely Double Effect highlights the issue with absolute moral principles – one should always act depending upon the situation and reject “prefabricated and prescriptive rules”
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
right to self determination autonomy, JS Mill, 3
- Right to die a dignified death. John Stuart Mill, in his essay ‘On Liberty’ argues that, “over himself, over his body and mind, the individual is sovereign”.
- Liberal principle – humans are the best judge of their own happiness; they should be given maximum freedom to live their lives as they consider appropriate
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
stable society criticism of mill
• Indeed Natural Law is so effective because ensures the preservation of a stable society – legally allowing people to take their lives could not only run the risk of involuntary euthanasia and murder, it marginalised the weak and ranks society in terms of qualities of life, when all life is sacred! Arguably society is better able to judge the best interests of a patient.
HOW EFFECTIVE IS NL/SE WHEN APPLIED TO EUTHANASIA
criticism of stable society, personalism
- By forcing one to live will a terminal illness where the QoL is non-existent, we are stripping individuals of their autonomy. In his 1954 book, ‘Morals and Medicine’ he argues a patient’s medical condition has to be the starting point; not absolute rules.
- A stable society is not one which prevents people from making choices about their own life and death. We should apply the Golden Rule and principle of agape love, situationally, in order to make most ethical and humane decisions
diane petty example
• Dianne Petty 2002 Motor Neurone disease, denied the right to die thus lived a low quality of life passive euthanasia allows a natural death, may be preventing God’s plan if we force them to stay alive artificially. Voluntary and passive euthanasia respects God’s gift by allowing life to end before it deteriorates.
