Evaluation Non-Experimental Methods (Component 2)

Question 1

Correlations

Answer 1

Strengths:
*Correlations can be used when it is impractical or unethical to manipulate variables experimentally initially but then any correlations found can potentially form the basis for later experimental research.
*Correlations can make use of already existing (secondary) data so it is a quicker way to carry out research than primary research which has to generate its own data first.

Weakness:
*Correlations only show whether there is a relationship between 2 co-variables, not how or why co variables are related therefore no assumptions about cause and effect an be established.
*The secondary data used for the 2 co-variables may lack validity if the researcher is not aware of how the data was originally collected.

Question 2

Observations

Answer 2

Strengths:
*Less chance of demand characteristics compared to other observations because participants do not know they are being observed by the researcher who is part of their group.
*Can research people who would otherwise be very difficult to observe, so the researcher may end up finding out information they didn’t know existed.

Weakness:
*The researcher may suffer from observer bias - where the researcher’s expectations affect their perception of events and they become subjective.
*Unreliable findings because it is difficult to take notes during the observation, so data relies on memory.

Question 3

Non-Participant Observation

Answer 3

Strength:
*The observer doesn’t take part in the action, but instead watches from a distance so there is less chance of observer bias.
*Researchers can see how participants behave rather than relying on self-reports which may produce more valid and reliable findings.

Weakness:
*Subjective – difficult to make judgments on thoughts and feelings of participants when they are being watched from a distance, so observer might misinterpret behaviour based on their own views and opinions.
*Unethical because participants do not always know they are being observed.

Question 4

Time Sampling

Answer 4

Strength:
*Shows how the behaviours are spread across the observation due to the use of time intervals
*Less likely to be overwhelmed than in event sampling as the researcher only observes at specific points in time

Weakness:
*If the behaviour occurs outside of the time interval for recording, behaviours are likely to be missed.
*The procedure is more complicated than event sampling, as observers have to keep track of the timing of their observations as well as the behaviours

Question 5

Event Sampling

Answer 5

Strength:
*When done effectively, all behaviours/events should be recorded
*More straightforward than time sampling as only start and finish time is needed, no intervals need to be timed

Weakness:
*Can be overwhelming for researchers to try and record every behaviour that occurs
*Hard to see when in the observation the behaviour occurs without time intervals

Question 6

Questionnaire

Answer 6

Strength:
*Can be used to assess psychological variables such as attitudes and personality traits etc. that may not be obvious by just observing someone using other methods.
*Respondents are more likely to reveal personal information in a questionnaire than face to face in an interview as they are anonymous, so data collected is more likely to be valid.

Weakness:
*There is no guarantee that the participant is telling the truth, as participants may give an answer that displays them in a positive light (social desirability) and this affects the validity of the data.
*Different participants may interpret the same question in different ways, this affects the reliability as it can lead to inconsistent results.

Question 7

Structured Interviews

Answer 7

Strength:
*Structured Interviews are easier to carry out than semi structured as they contain a list of fixed, predetermined questions are asked by the interviewer which they cannot deviate from. This means they are standardised and easier to replicate than semi-structured increasing the reliability of the method.
*Structured interviews require no skill from the interviewer as the standardised questions can be read out to the participants by less qualified members of the research team meaning there are no training costs.

Weakness:
*Structured interviews are not flexible. This means new potentially insightful questions cannot be asked during the interview, as a fixed schedule must be followed by the interviewer. This means interesting information that may be relevant to the topic under investigation may be overlooked.
*Structured interviews are more formal and less conversational than semi-structured interviews which can make it difficult for the interviewer to put the participants at ease during the process.

Question 8

Semi-Structured Interviews

Answer 8

Strength:
*Semi-structured interviews are very flexible making it easy for the researcher to deviate from the questions on the script if unexpected or interesting opinions are voiced by the interviewees. This can lead to new insights on the topic being gained that may not be discovered in other types of interviews.
*Semi structured interviews are more informal and conversational in nature than structured interviews. This allows the trained interviewer to make interviewees feel more comfortable and at ease during the process. As a result, it is possible for the interviewer to keep verbal responses on topic by swaying them away from irrelevant responses.

Weakness:
*Semi-structured interviews lack standardised procedures as interviewers ask follow-up questions that develop on verbal responses given by each individual interviewee. This makes replication of semi-structured interviews more difficult than other interview types reducing their external reliability .
*Because semi-structured interviews require a high level of interviewing skills they can be more costly and time consuming to design and carry out than structured interviews.

Question 9

MRI Scans

Answer 9

Strength:
*Extensive research has been conducted and none so far has found any evidence to suggest any risk from the magnetic fields and radio waves to the research participants.
*The strong magnetic field used in MRI scans give a more detailed image of the soft tissue of the brain than other scanning techniques as they provide a detailed, cross sectional 3D image of the brains structure.

Weakness:
*Participants with claustrophobia may find it anxiety provoking as they have to stay very still in the scanner for a considerable amount of time. Therefore, lack of protection from harm can be an issue if participants are not informed about the full procedure involved in the research before they take part.
*Accessibility for researchers is very limited as MRI scans are an expensive resource to use for psychological research on the brain and because of this they tend to only be available for a very limited number of research studies.

Question 10

PET Scans

Answer 10

Strength:
*Enables researchers to see brain function as well as structure on live participants as opposed to early reliance on postmortems which only show brain structure rather than brain function or brain activity.
*Reveals scientific, objective, biochemical information that is not available with other imaging techniques such as X rays, therefore providing researchers with more detailed data about brain activity.

Weakness:
*Poses ethical issue (lack of protection from harm) as participants have to be injected with a radioactive substance, therefore the technique can only be used a few times, meaning there is a limit on the number of research studies that participants can safely take part in.
*As well as also being expensive technology to use for psychological research, PET scans are very limited in the range of activities that can be investigated as the participants are placed in the scanner whilst carrying out any tasks required for the research.

Question 11

Case Studies

Answer 11

Strength:
*Highly detailed and in-depth data collected ​that helps provide further insight of the topic under investigation.
*May be the only method suitable for studying some forms of behaviour that may be unethical or impractical to investigate using other methods eg the effects of maternal deprivation.

Weakness:
*Case studies can be very difficult to replicate ​due to the uniqueness of the participant/s experiences.
*Case studies may suffer from subjective interpretations from the researcher in an attempt to consciously or unconsciously fit in with their theory) ​

Question 12

Content Analysis

Answer 12

Strength:
*Content analysis can be replicated by others. Sources can be retained and accessed by others. As long as the same artefacts that are being analysed are available to others (e.g. the same magazines, TV shows), the analysis could be repeated and consistency assessed​.
*As content analysis involves secondary data, as such it has very few ethical issues as no direct contact with participants is required by the researchers​.

Weakness:
*Content analysis can be open to observer bias because the way in which the researcher analyses the content is based on their own opinion. It is the subjective interpretation of data. This can affect the validity of the findings. (e.g., written content-news articles, diaries)
*If different researchers carry out a content analysis, it can lead to each researcher interpreting the categories in the coding system differently. This can affect the validity of the findings as they may be analysing different constructs within the content and/or affect the reliability of the findings as the content may not be analysed consistently by different researchers.

Question 13

Peer Review

Answer 13

Strength:
*Peer review promotes and maintains high standards in research, which has implications for society and funding allocation so that it is assigned to high quality research.
*Helps to prevent scientific fraud, as submitted work is scrutinized.
It promotes the scientific process through the development and dissemination of accurate of knowledge and contributes new knowledge to the field.

Weakness:
*If anonymity is not maintained, experts with a conflict of interest might not approve research to further their own reputation or career.
Publication bias
*Contributes to the “file drawer effect” – as statistically significant findings are published more frequently.  This means that findings that challenge existing understanding might be overlooked as they are not published.
Work from prestigious universities is favoured, male researchers’ work is published more often – showing publication bias

Question 14

Longitudinal Studies

Answer 14

Strength:
*Fewer participant variables than cross sectional research because the same person is tested numerous times and the current data is compared to the same participants previous data.
*Developmental trends within the same participants can be spotted easily as tests are repeated at regular intervals over many years and findings are compared.

Weakness:
*High attrition (drop out) rate because the data collection takes so long. As a result, the sample left may be smaller at the end leaving the researcher without potentially interesting data that they may have continued to contribute had they stayed.
*Participants are more likely to be aware of the aims of the study so may show demand characteristics. Overtime it is possible that participants might begin to exhibit social desirability bias too.

Question 15

Cross-Sectional Studies

Answer 15

Strength:
*Quicker and cheaper than longitudinal design because participants only need to be tested once for comparisons and no follow-up study is necessary.
*Participants are easier to obtain because there’s less pressure for them to take part, compared to having to stick with a long-term longitudinal study.

Weakness:
*Data collected is from a snapshot (taken at one point in time) so it’s harder to identify and analyse developmental trends in these studies. *Participant variables are an issue with cross sectional research because comparisons between different people are being made e.g. younger/older people.