evolution and speciation

Question 1

Explain why individuals within a population of a species may show a wide range of variation in phenotype

Answer 1

● Genetic factors
○ Mutations = primary source of genetic variation
○ Crossing over between homologous chromosomes during meiosis
○ Independent segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis
○ Random fertilisation of gametes during sexual reproduction
● Environmental factors (depends on context - eg. food availability, light intensity)

Question 2

What is evolution?

Answer 2

● Change in allele frequency over time / many generations in a population
● Occurring through the process of natural selection

Question 3

Describe factors that may drive natural selection

Answer 3

● Predation, disease and competition for the means of survival
● These result in differential survival and reproduction, ie. natural selection

Question 4

Explain the principles of natural selection in the evolution of populations

Answer 4

1. Random gene mutations can result in [named] new alleles of a gene
2. Advantage Due to [named] selection pressure, the new allele might benefit its possessor
   [explain why] → organism has a selective advantage
3. Reproduction Possessors are more likely to survive and have increased reproductive success
4. Advantageous allele is inherited by members of the next generation (offspring)
5. Over many generations, [named] allele increases in frequency in the gene pool

Question 5

Explain the effects of stabilising selection

Answer 5

● Organisms with alleles coding for average /
modal variations of a trait have a selective
advantage (eg. babies with an average weight)
● So frequency of alleles coding for average
variations of a trait increase and those coding
for extreme variations of a trait decrease
● So range / standard deviation is reduced

Question 6

Explain the effects of directional selection

Answer 6

● Organisms with alleles coding for one extreme
variation of a trait have a selective advantage
(eg. bacteria with high resistance to an antibiotic)
● So frequency of alleles coding for this extreme
variation of the trait increase and those coding for the other extreme variation of the trait decrease

Question 7

Explain the effects of disruptive selection

Answer 7

● Organisms with alleles coding for either extreme
variation of a trait have a selective advantage
● So frequency of alleles coding for both extreme
variations of the trait increase and those coding for the average variation of the trait decrease
● This can lead to speciation

Question 8

Describe speciation (how new species arise from existing species)

Answer 8

1. Reproductive separation of two populations (of the same species)
2. This can result in accumulation of differences in their gene pools
3. New species arise when these genetic differences lead to an inability of members of the populations to interbreed and produce fertile offspring

Question 9

Describe allopatric speciation

Answer 9

1. Population is split due to geographical isolation (eg. new river formed)
2. This leads to reproductive isolation, separating gene pools by preventing
   interbreeding / gene flow between populations
3. Random mutations cause genetic variation within each population
4. Different selection pressures / environments act on each population
5. So different advantageous alleles are selected for / passed on in each population
6. So allele frequencies within each gene pool change over many generations
7. Eventually different populations cannot interbreed to produce fertile offspring

Question 10

Describe sympatric speciation

Answer 10

1. Population is not geographically isolated
2. Mutations lead to reproductive isolation, separating gene pools by preventing interbreeding / gene flow within one population, eg.
   ○ Gamete incompatibility
   ○ Different breeding seasons (eg. different flowering times)
   ○ Different courtship behaviour preventing mating
   ○ Body shape / size changes preventing mating
3. Different selection pressures act on each population
4. So different advantageous alleles are selected for / passed on in each population
5. So allele frequencies within each gene pool change over many generations
6. Eventually different populations cannot interbreed to produce fertile offspring

Question 11

Explain genetic drift and its importance in small populations

Answer 11

● Genetic drift = a mechanism of evolution in which allele frequencies in a population change over
generations due to chance (NOT natural selection)
● Some alleles are passed onto offspring more / less often by chance
○ Regardless of selection pressures and whether alleles give a selective advantage
● So strongest effects in small populations with no interbreeding with other populations (no gene
flow), as gene pool is small and chance has a greater influence
○ Eg. when a population is sharply reduced in size (bottleneck effect)
○ Eg. when a small, new colony forms from a main population (founder effect)
● This can reduce genetic diversity - some alleles have much higher frequencies, others are lost

Question 12

true or false “Reproductive isolation occurs at the end of allopatric speciation.”

Answer 12

Geographical isolation leads to reproductive isolation. This then allows differences in gene pools to accumulate.

Question 13

true or false “Organisms adapt to their environments.”

Answer 13

Whole populations adapt to their environment over many generations, not the organisms themselves. Organisms that happen to
be better adapted are more likely to survive and reproduce.