1
Q
Range
A
The difference between the lowest and highest
- provide rough estimate of variation
- if have couple of extreme scores, will create a false large range / variation
- better method: standard deviation
2
Q
Skewed Distributions
A
Happens due to few extreme data points
- this is why if the mean is reported, the report can be inaccurate
ex) Income data – billionaires skew the data
3
Q
Scatterplots
A
A graphed cluster of dots – good for showing correlation between two variables
- slope represents the relationship between two variables
- amount of scatter shows strength of correlation
- perfect positive correlation, no relationship, perfect negative correlation
4
Q
Bar charts
A
- compare categories
- show variation in subgroups
5
Q
Histograms
A
- shows distribution of numeric values of variables
- shows frequency of variables
6
Q
Mean
A
Arithmetic average; total sum / number of scores
7
Q
Median
A
Midpoint; 50th percentile
8
Q
Mode
A
Most frequently occurring score or scores
9
Q
Standard Deviation
A
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
- useful standard for measuring how much scores deviate from one another
- can know if data packed together or dispersed
10
Q
Normal curve
A
Bell shaped distribution
- most cases fall near mean, fewer in either extreme
- 68 percent fall within one standard deviation
- 95 percent fall in two standard deviations
- 97.5 = 3 standard deviation
11
Q
Regression to the mean
A
Tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average
- since unusual scores can be a combination of different factors, if tested again, the score will likely be more regular
- can lead to illusionary correlation ( ex. after a poor performance, coach will think the scolding actually worked when the team preforms okay again in the next game)
12
Q
Statistical significance
A
Statistical statement of how likely it is that result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied (doesn’t mean it’s a big effect though)
- difference is statistically significant: If sample’s difference reflects a true population difference
- multiple observations have low variability = statistically significant
- p-value: number describing how likely it is that your data would have occurred by random chance
13
Q
Sample size
A
Large sample size minimize chance of extreme outcomes
14
Q
Representativeness of sample
A
Random and representative samples; not just from exceptional and memorable cases
- research rarely randomly samples whole population ; hard to do
15
Q
Empirical approach
A
Evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation
- Not introspection
- requires scientific attitude
- James Randi
- Hume
16
Q
Descartes
A
Dualism
Believes physical body was container for non physical (the mind)
Hard problem of consciousness
17
Q
Scientific Attitude
A
curiosity: can prediction be confirmed
skepticism: sift reality from fantasy
humility : be willing to be surprised by new ideas
18
Q
Critical thinking
A
examine assumptions, appraise source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, assesses conclusions
19
Q
Nagel
A
What is it like to be a bat?
20
Q
Hobbes
A
Materialism
- everything is a mechanical system
- the mind is what the brain does
21
Q
Structuralism
A
Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
22
Q
Wundt
A
- structuralist
- created first psychology experiment / lab (reaction time)
- wanted to measure “atoms of the mind”
- used analytic introspection to try to find building blocks of the mind
- experience is combination of sensations
23
Q
James
A
- functionalist
- influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution
- adaptive processes
- studied emotions, memories, willpower, habits, stream of consciousness
24
Q
Functionalism
A
Exploration of how mental and behavioral processes function – how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
25
Frued
Freudian Psychology
- ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect behavior and personality
- Unconscious and conscious
- Id: basic desires (had since baby)
- Superego: values (after develop morals)
- Ego: mediator between superego and id --> decision making
26
Pavlov & Watson
Behaviorism
Pavlov
- classical conditioning (stimulus-response)
- something that naturally happens paired with something that does not naturally happen
- learned experience
- dogs salivate when the research assistant comes in
John Watson
- predict behavior through study of observable behavior
- present boy with comforting item but then when given item a loud bar hitting sound --> boy started to cry when shown item
27
Skinner
Behavioralist
- conditioning chamber to explaining learning and operant conditioning (use rewards or punishments to modify behavior)
28
Chomsky
Resistance to behaviorism
Human language
- children form sentences they never heard before --> so can't be stimulus-response
29
Late 1800s
Structuralism, functionalism, empirical approach
30
Early 1900s
Psychoanalysis and behaviorism
Resistance to behaviorism
31
Late 1900s
Cognitive revolution
- cognitive psychology
- cognitive neuroscience
32
Study of mental processes
Cognitive psychology:
- how we perceive, process, and remember information
- how thinking and emotion interact in anxiety, depression, and other disorders
33
Humanistic psychology
Focus on growth potential
- our need for love, acceptance, environments that nurture personal growth
34
Evolutionary psychology
Study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
- nature vs nurture
35
Positive psychology
Study of human flourishing, with goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
36
Biopsychosocial approach
Integrated approach that incorporates 3 levels of analysis: biological, psychological, social-cultural
37
Types of psychology careers
Basic research: build psychology's knowledge base
Applied research: tackle practical problems
Counseling psychologist: help cope with challenges
Clinical psychologist: assessing and treating people with disorders
Psychiatrist: medical doctors who can prescribe drugs
Community psychologists: create healthy environments
38
Levels of analysis
Different ways to analyze a given phenomenon
Biological : genetic traits, genes responding to environment
Psychological : learned fears, emotional responses
Social-cultural : cultural, societal, family expectations
39
Study skills: SQ3R
Survey: read main points
Questions: create study questions
Read: read section and answer Qs
Recite: recite main ideas
Review: main points and section questions
40
Empiricism
Knowledge is acquired through experience
41
Nativism
Knowledge is innate rather than aquired
42
Theory
Explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations
- imply predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications
- stimulate further research that leads to a revised theroy that better organizes and predicts observations
43
Hypothesis
A testable prediction
- supports a theory or leads to revision
- a hypothesis should be: logical, testable, falsifiable and positive
44
Operational Definitions
Carefully worded statement of exact procedures used in a research study
- what is it?
- how is it assessed?
- for whom is it applicable
45
Feynman's thoughts on scientific method
You guess then test it; you can't "prove" anything
46
Correlation
Measure of extent two factors vary together; how well one factor predicts the other
Correlation coefficient: statistical index of relationship between two thing (-1.00 to +1.00)
Positive correlation (0 to +1.00): direct relationship
Negative correlation (-1.00 to 0): inverse relationship
*Correlation points towards predictions and reveal relationships; but imperfect ones
*Correlation does not prove causation
47
Experiment
Research method in which one or more factors are manipulated and then the effects on some behavior or mental process is observed
- experimental group: ppl receive the treatment
- control group: does not receive treatment
- random sampling: create representative survey sample
- random assignment: equalizes experimental & control group
48
Quasi-experiment
Involves variables you can't manipulate, or that cannot be randomly assigned
- no random assignment
49
Naturalistic observation
Recording natural behavior of many individuals
- does not control all factors
- often involves new technology ("big data")
- describes and illuminates but does not explain behavior
50
Meta-analysis
Statistical procedure for analyses of multiple study results
- finds universal principles
51
Survey
Ask people to self-report behavior or opinions of particular group
- wording effect: wording can affect results
52
Case study
In-depth analyses of individuals or groups
- suggests fruitful ideas for future research
- doesn't provide generalizations or universal truths
ex. Phineas Gage and the metal bar
53
Sampling
Random sample: each member in population has equal chance of inclusion
Representative sample
Large sample size
ex. "small rural communities have the highest incidence of Kidney Cancer" --> but small rural communities also have the lowest incidence of kidney cancer
54
Replication
Experiment should be replicable; replication = confirmation
- repeat original observations with different participants, materials, circumstances
- increases reliability confidence of experiment / finding
55
Pre-registration
Publicly communicate planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses
- transparency prevents later changing hypotheses to fit data
- important for exploratory research (gather data and seek patterns that inspire theories) which can be tested with confirmatory research
56
Double blind procedure
Procedure in which both research participants and staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
- find accurate results without placebo effect
57
Ethical considerations
Animal testing: need to provide humane living conditions
Ethics code of APA and BPS
- obtain potential participants's informed consent to take part
- protect participants from greater-than-usual harm and discomfort
- keep info about individual confidential
- fully debrief people : explain research afterwards
58
What are good research protocols?
Replication, preregistration, reporting null findings, double blind procedure, ethical considerations
59
Independent variable
The factor that is being manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
60
Dependent variable
The outcome that is measured;
the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
61
Confounding variable
A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results
- random assignment helps reduce
62
Demand characteristics
Aspects of observational setting that can cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects
63
Hindsight Bias
Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome
- "I-knew-it-all-along"
64
Placebo effect
Experimental results caused by expectations
- ex. thinking that you are getting treatment can make it feel like you are getting better
65
Overconfidence
People tend to be more confident than correct
66
Perceiving order from random events
People tend to find patterns in random data
- random sequences often don't look random
67
Bias
Start to accept info that fit bias instead based on evidence
Post-truth: people's emotions and personal beliefs will often override their acceptance of objective facts
causes
- false news
- repetition; more repeated info
- availability of powerful examples
- echo chamber of the like-minded
68
Problems with survey data
Things to consider:
- standardized: needs to be like normal curve (not like yelp which people mostly give 0 stars or 5 stars)
- reliable: can be able to get same scores again
- valid: measures what is it meant to measure
69
Predicting everyday behavior
Experiments's purpose is not to re-create exact behaviors in everyday life
- resulting principles, not specific findings, in experiment help explain everyday behaviors
70
Neuroplasticity / neural reorganization
Brain's ability to change, esp during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
ex. pianists have larger than usual auditory cortex area
71
Gilial cells
"Glue cells"
Cells in nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
- play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
- in more complex brains, proportion of glia to neurons increase
72
Neurons
Nerve cell; basic building block of nervous system
73
Dendrite
Branches around neuron that receives info and conducts it to cell body
74
Axon
Single lengthy fiber that passes messages to other neurons or muscles or glands
75
Neurogenesis
Process which new neurons are formed in the brain
- happens part to stem cells (special cells that can developinto different types of cells like brain cells)
76
Action potential
Neural impulse (neuron sends messages through)
- a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon
- if excitatory signal exceed threshold, action potential triggered --> all or nothing
- rate of firing is measured : low stimulus = slow firing; high stimulus = fast firing
77
Role of Myelin
Encases axon --> allow for greater transmission speed
- crucial for neural efficiency, judgment, and self-control
- if degenerates: multiple sclerosis results; communication to muscles and brain region slows
- insulator for "passive" electrotonic transmission
- signal "jumps" between gaps
78
Synaptic transmission
Meeting point between neurons (synapse) have a small gap (synaptic gap)
- when action potential reaches axon's end, it sends messages (neurotransmitters) between synapse
- excitatory synapses: receiving dendrites increase the likelihood of a cell firing
- inhibitory synapses: receiving dendrites decrease the likelihood of a cell firing
- how do dendrites know which neurotransmitter to receive --> neurotransmitter and receptor sites are like lock-and-key
79
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross synaptic gap between neurons
- when released, neurotransmitters travel across synapse and bind to receptor site (like key fits lock)
- unlock tiny channels at receiving site
- excess neurotransmitters drift away, broken down by enzymes, or reabsorbed by the sending neuron (reuptake)
- different neurotrasmitters (ex. ACh : learning, memory, muscle action)
80
Agonist
A molecule that increase neurotransmitter's action; excites neurons' firing
- increase production of neurotransmitters or block reuptake
81
Antagonist
A molecule that decreases neurotransmitter's action by blocking production or release
- occupies receptor site and block neurotransmitter's effect
82
Endorphins
Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
83
Sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming info from body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
- PNS
84
Motor neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
-CNS
85
Interneurons
Neurons within brain and spinal cord
- communicate internally and process info between sensory inputs and motor outputs
- CNS
86
Nervous Systems
Communication network in body
Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system: gathering info and transmitting CNS decision to other body parts
87
Somatic nervous system
Component of PNS
- voluntary control of skeletal muscles
- tap on shoulder and turn head
- have sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to teh rest of the body
88
Autonomic nervous system
Component of PNS
- controls glands and interanal organ muscles
- glandular activity, heartbeat, digestion
89
Sympathetic nervous system
Part of autonomic nervous system
- arouses and expends energy
- accelerate heartbeat, raise blood pressure, make you alert
90
Parasympathetic nervous system
Part of autonomic nervous system
- conserves energy
- calm you down
91
Reflexes
Automatic responses to stimuli
- sensory neuron --> interneuron in spinal cord --> send motor neurons
- reflex pathway runs through spinal cord and right back --> act before brain can react
92
Endocrine System
Body's "slow" chemical communication system
- a set of glands and fat tissue that secret hormones into blood stream
93
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands
- travel through bloodstream, and affect other tissues
- influence interest in sex, food, and aggression
94
Glands
Adrenal glands: ANS orders adrenal glands to release epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline) when in danger
Pituitary gland (master gland): located in core of brain; growth hormone and oxytocin released
95
Feedback system
ex. Brain --> pituitary --> other glands --> hormones --> body and brain
96
fMRI
Technique for revealing blood flow, which shows brain activity, by comparing successive MRI scans
- shows brain function and structure
97
MRI
Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft issue
- good for detecting location and showing brain anatomy
- bad for timing of brain activity
- BOLD: blood oxygen level dependent
98
EEG
An amplified recording of waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface
- measured by electrodes placed on scalp
- good for measuring timing of brain activity
- bad for location of brain activity
99
DTI
By capturing the direction and magnitude of water diffusion, DTI enables the visualization of neural pathways and connectivity, making it an indispensable tool for understanding brain anatomy, function, and pathology.
100
PET
Detects brain activity by displaying where radioactive form of glucose goes while performing a given task
101
Single electrode recording
Technique that uses an inserted microelectrode to measure the electrical activity of a single neuron
102
MEG
Brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from brain's natural electrical activity
- use head coil thats like salon hairdryer
- measures speed and strength of magnetic fields caused by neurons creating electrical pulses
103
Dorsal / ventral
Dorsal: top
Central: bottom
104
Anterior / posterior
Anterior: in front of
Posterior: behind
105
Medial / lateral
Medial: toward the center
Lateral: away from the center
106
Hindbrain
Contains brainstem structures
- essential survival functions: breathing, sleeping, arousal, coordination, balance
107
Brainstem
Central core of brain , beginning where spinal cord wellss as it enter skull
- responsible for automatic survival functions
- part of hindbrain
108
Cerebellum
Rear of the brainstem
- processes sensory input, coordinates movement output, coordinate balance, enable nonverbal learning and memory (ex. soccer player controlling ball)
- part of hindbrain
109
Medulla
Brainstem's base
- controls heartbeat and breathing
- part of hindbrain
110
Midbrain
Connects hindbrain with forebrain
- controls some movement and transmits info for seeing and hearing
111
Forebrain
Manage complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, voluntary motor activities
112
Thalamus
Sensory control center (except smell)
- located on top of brainstem
- directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex
- transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla
- part of forebrain
113
Reticular formation
Nerve network that travels through brainstem into thalamus
- filters info and plays an important role in controlling arousal
- part of forebrain
114
Limbic system
Neural system associated with emotions and drives
- includes amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus
- part of forebrain
115
Amygdala
Neural clusters that enable aggression and fear
- part of forebrain + limbic system
116
Hippocampus
Neural clusters that help process explicit Memories
- part of forebrain + limbic system
117
Hypothalamus
Neural clusters that influence bodily maintenance (hunger, thirst, body temperature, etc)
- tries to maintain homeostatic internal state --> listens into blood chemistry and any incoming orders from other brain parts
- part of forebrain + limbic system
118
Cerebral hemisphere
Hemisphere of brain that controls perception, thinking, and speaking
- part of forebrain
119
Cerebral Cortex
Thin layer of interconnected neural cells covering forebrain's cerebral hemisphere
- ultimate control and information-processing center
-gyrus : bulge of cortex
- sulcus: crease of cortex
120
Left hemisphere
- process language
- make quick, literal interpretations of langauge
- math tasks
121
Right hemisphere
- makes inferences
- help modulate speech
- orchestrate self-awareness
122
Frontal lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex at the forehead
- involved in speaking, muscle movements, planning, judgment
- steer us to kindness / away from violence
123
Parietal lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex at the top rear of head
- receives sensory input for touch and body position
124
Occipital lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex at the back of the head / 뒷목
- receive information from visual fields
125
Temporal lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex above the ears
- auditory areas; receive info from opposite ear
126
Motor cortex
Cerebral cortex area at rear of frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
127
Somatosensory cortex
Cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
128
Auditory cortex
Cerebral cortex area in temporal lobes
- info is from the opposite side ear
129
Association areas
Cerebral cortex area not involved in primary motor or sensory function
- found in all four lobes
- involved in higher mental functions ; learning, speaking, remembering, thinking
130
Do we only use 10% of the brain?
No.
Association areas have no observable responses / data, but it is still important to interpret, integrate, and act on sensory information
131
Neuroplasticity and responses to damage
Neuroplasticity: brain ability to change in response to experiences
brain-damage effects is due to:
1. severed brain and spinal cord neurons can't regenerate
2. some brain functions are preassigned to specific areas
Adapting
ex. blind person's sensory cortex can invade visual cortex in order to better adapt to reading braille
132
Split brain patients
Cut the corpus callosum and separate the right and left hemisphere of brain
- personality and intellect intact
- left hand and left visual field processed by right hemisphere and vice versa
133
Ventricles
The ventricles play a key role in the circulation and absorption of CSF. CSF protects the brain and spinal cord, removes waste, and delivers nutrients.
134
Structural and functional connectivity
Structural connectivity:
- brain's "wiring diagram" created by axons that connect brain areas
- unique to individuals as fingerprints
Functional connectivity:
- how group of neurons within connectome (network) function in relation to types of cognition
- determined by the amount of correlated neural activity in two brain areas
135
Twin studies
Between identical (monozygotic) twins and fraternal (dizygotic) twins, when separated, identical twins have more similiarities
Biological relatives more similar in personality than adoptive relatives
136
Gene - environment interactions
Environment trigger gene activity
Environmental factors that can affect epigenetic molecules that regulate gene expression
- attractive person growing up is more popular --> become more outgoing
137
Gene expressions and epigenetics
Epigenetics: genes are "switched on" without altering DNA
- interchange between heredity and the environment
- environment can influence genetic expression
138
Natural selection and adaptation
Certain biological and behavioral variations increase organism's reproductive and survival chances in their particular environment --> offspring that survive pass their genes --> population characteristics change over time
139
Corpus callosum
Large band of neural fibers connecting right and left hemisphere of brain and carrying messages between them
PSYC 1101
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