1
Q
sources of nutrients in soil
A
mineral weathering (rock, sediment); atmospheric deposition; organic matter recycling
–> “soil solution”: nutrients exist as dissolved ions in soil water
2
Q
local drivers of climate variation: rain shadow effect
A
high altitudes (mountain ranges) can shield rain from passing over the top, leading to one side being lush and the other dry
3
Q
abyssal plain
A
deep ocean floor (3000-6000m); very cold, dark, high pressure
–> fed by marine snow and dead bodies sunk from above
4
Q
narrow rivers
A
small headwater streams; turbulent water, very oxygenated; nutrients are allochthonous
–> coarse particulate organic matter, covered by microbes; eaten by shredders into fine particulate organic matter; eaten by collectors (filter feeders), allowing for downstream continuation
–> fish: favor cold, oxygenated water (trout)
5
Q
global ocean span
A
71% of Earth’s surface
97% of Earth’s water
where life began
6
Q
monomictic lake
A
water can turn over in summer (e.g. Great Bear Lake) or winter (e.g. Blue Lake)
7
Q
nutrients in marine biomes
A
currents diverge (upwell) or converge (downwell) with land or each other
–> upwelling: deep, nutrient-rich water brought to surface
–> downwelling: center of major gyres; nutrients move from surface to depths
8
Q
efficiency of conversion of ingested foods
A
insects feeding on foods with more nitrogen have higher ECIs, meaning that nutrients limit (and regulate) growth/energy flow
9
Q
thermal neutral zones
A
range of external temperatures where metabolic rate is minimal and unchanging
–> too cold: metabolic rate rises to heat body (increased energy use)
–> too hot: metabolic rate rises to stay cool
10
Q
tundra
A
temp: cold, subzero most of the year
precip: low, little evaporation
soil: thick, defined by permafrost
plants: moss, lichen, perennial grasses and herbs
11
Q
niche partitioning
A
natural selection drives competitors into different patterns of resource use
–> variations in community structure across space (large- and fine-scale) and time (seasonal)
12
Q
marine biodiversity is…
A
lower than terrestrial - although this could be because we’ve yet to discover them
–> so far, only 5 species of marine insect discovered
13
Q
for most plants, nutrients come from…
A
soil; chemical elements needed for biomass, physiological functions
–> light, CO2 from atmosphere
–> water, N, P, K from soil
–> other important nutrients are sulfur, calcium, magnesium, iron
14
Q
genetically-encoded flexibility
A
genotype can produce multiple phenotypes depending on environment
–> powered by regulatory genes that “switch on” structural genes in response to stimuli
15
Q
fundamental niche
A
factors which permit a species to survive (temperature tolerance range)
–> conditions where a species might live in absence of interactions with others
16
Q
mesopelagic
A
underexplored ecosystem (200-1000m deep), between 0-1% light level
–> fed by sunken phytoplankton, detritus, waste (“marine snow”); some fish migrate to surface at night
17
Q
no light + bottom of lake
A
limnetic
–> surface water is sunlight, oxygenated, and wind-mixed
–> photosynthesis by phytoplankton, cyanobacteria
18
Q
geographic mosaic
A
different environments have different selective pressures
19
Q
high temp, low precipitation
A
hot desert
e.g. Phoenix, Arizona
20
Q
wind circulation
A
wind patterns in different cells contribute to the movement of precipitation across continents
–> Polar cells: polar Easterlies - cold, dry winds, deflected westward (so from east–>west direction); blow from high-pressure polar highs to low-pressure subpolar lows
–> Ferrel cells: Westerlies - west–>east direction, interacting with easterlies to create high-pressure storm zones; tend to bring stormy, changeable weather to Western continental coasts during winter
–> top Hadley cell: NE trade winds, blowing from northeast–>southwest; transport moisture for tropical weather in rainforest areas
–> bottom Hadley cell: SE trade winds, blowing from southeast–>northwest; can affect oceanic movement, precipitation
21
Q
animals require (nutrition)…
A
organic forms of nitrogen via proteins and amino acids
–> higher nitrogen concentration than plants
22
Q
marine biomes
A
different habitat types determined by environment and dominant primary producer
–> drivers of diversity: temperature, currents, nutrients, primary productivity, light, salinity
23
Q
lakes
A
water (precipitation, snow, rivers, groundwater) + basin (glaciers, tectonic, etc.)
24
Q
leaching
A
water drains past roots, taking nutrients away from the soil
25
cation exchange capacity
clay mineral surfaces, soil organic matter are negatively charged; ability of plant to access nutrients depends on how well it can swap its own cations (H+) for K+/Mg+/etc. from the soil
26
niche
summary of environmental factors which influence all factors necessary for existence
--> physical + ecological interactions on growth, reproduction, survival; role played in some ecosystem
27
temperature balance
ΔH = SR + IRin - IRout +/- Hconduction +/- Hconvection - Hevaporation + Hmetabolism
--> SR = solar radiation absorbed
--> IR = infrared radiation (from and to surrounding objects)
--> conduction: heat transfer between adjacent solid surfaces
--> convection: heat transfer between surrounding fluids (air, water)
--> evaporation: lost via evap. of water (for plants, evapotranspiration)
--> metabolism: heat gained from metabolic processes
28
goldenrods & gall flies study
small galls = vulnerable to insects, not birds
large galls = vulnerable to birds, not insects
--> forest goldenrods = even pressure from both
--> prairie goldenrods = only pressure from insects
cross-match flies & galls from all three environments...
** result: forest goldenrods consistently produced larger galls because they had not developed the adaptation to fight against them
29
carnivory
consumption of other heterotrophs, including scavengers
30
trophic level 1
primary producers (autotrophs - plants, algae, cyanobacteria, chemoautotrophic microbes)
31
coral reefs
tropical, subtropical; high structural biodiversity = high overall biodiversity
--> calcium carbonate secretion = hardened surface
--> photosynthetic algae live within tissue for PP
--> may form "symbiosis" with a neighboring mangrove forest
32
volcanic lake
formed by extinct crater
33
temperate forest
temp: temperate, seasonal (warm summers/cold-mild winters)
precip: moderate
soil: thick, fertile, rich in organic matter
plants: cold-deciduous trees, some conifers
34
nutrient remobilization
most tree biomass is in the trunk, branches, and coarse roots
--> most nutrients are allocated to leaves, fine roots (shortest-lived parts)
--> before leaves die and fall, proteins and other macromolecules are broken down to be moved into other areas
--> remobilization rates are higher when nutrients are less abundant (more necessary to get them elsewhere)
35
temperate rainforest
temp: temperate, seasonal (cool summers, mild winters)
precip: high (except during summer)
soil: typically infertile
plants: coniferous trees (including the largest on Earth)
36
graphing two phenotypes vs. environment
parallel horizontal lines: no plasticity, no genetic variation
parallel lines with positive slope: plasticity, no genetic variation
parallel lines with greater difference between them, positive slope: plasticity and genetic variation
nonparallel lines: genetic variation for plasticity
37
dimictic lake
water turns over in spring and fall
38
high temp, high precipitation
tropical rain forest
e.g. Hilo, Hawaii
39
marginal value theorem
an organism should leave its foraging patch when the rate of return falls to the patch average
--> function depends on travel time: an organism which lives further away requires more time at the patch because it cannot find a new patch as easily
--> steepness of function depends on patch quality
40
salinity in marine biomes
average ocean salinity is 35 ppt (variation is 33-37 ppt); higher in enclosed, shallow areas like the Mediterranean
41
mycorrhizal fungi (AM)
penetrates roots of trees/plants
--> phosphorous
42
herbivory
consumption of primary producers (plants, fruits, nectars)
43
mid temp, lowest precipitation
cold desert
44
puddling
lapping up fluids to get mineral nutrients from an atypical food source
--> need to obtain certain minerals can lead to suboptimal foraging behavior, aiding in growth efficiency
45
ectotherms
"cold blooded"
--> regulate temperature behaviorally (equilibrates to environment)
46
oceanic zone
>200m deep, beyond shelf
--> top to bottom: epipelagic, mesopelagic, abyssal plain
47
gross primary production
all carbon turned into sugar by autotrophs
48
trophic level 3
secondary consumers (mesopredators, sometimes apex predators, mostly omnivores)
49
trophic levels
groups of organisms which obtain energy from similar sources
50
kelp forests
temperate, subarctic and subantarctic; fast-growing brown macroalgae
--> supports fisheries; filters excess nutrients (N, P); sequesters carbon; grows very fast, lots of PP
51
trophic levels 4+
tertiary consumers (carnivores, increasing number of apex predators; "trophically isolated" from T1)
52
karst lake
formed by a sinkhole ("cenote")
53
developmental response
change in the environment affects development
--> not reversible; e.g. growing differently in utero if predators are nearby
54
soil organic carbon storage
long-term sequestered carbon availability (more further north, such as in the boreal forest)
--> peat soil is waterlogged, so decomposition of soil takes too long - lasts a while
55
light in marine biomes
penetrates the ocean but on average reaches only 200m deep
--> photic zone:; 0-200m
--> coastal photic zone: 50m, as increased number of primary producers = light blocked (phytoplankton, sediment, particulation in water)
56
soil texture
determines water and nutrient retention
--> sand: 2mm-50μm
--> silt: 50μm-2μm
--> clay: < 2μm
--> sand, silt physically weathered; clay is chemically weathered
--> more sand drains quickly, water flows faster; more clay holds water better (more surface area)
57
competitive exclusion principle
two species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely
--> for the same resource, the "loser" will either go locally extinct or evolve to occupy a separate niche
58
trophic level 2
primary consumers (herbivores - feeders on plants, phytoplankton, algae)
59
currents and circulation
differential heating + Coriolius effect = prevailing wind patterns
--> global ocean currents move clockwise in Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in Southern, taking warmer water up further north than would be expected
60
selection for plasticity
flexibility is favorable in highly variable environments
--> in static environments, plasticity may be lost over time
61
tropical seasonal forest
temp: high year-round
precip: seasonal (wet and dry seasons)
soil: richer, less acidic than rainforest
plants: many drought-deciduous trees which lose their leaves in dry season
62
net primary productivity
amount of carbon deposited into plant tissues, available for consumption
--> limited by temperature, water, and sunlight (poles are temp-limited; dry areas, water; shaded, light)
63
profundal/aphotic zone
no light penetration
64
neritic zone
shallow coastal waters above continental shelf (< 200m); light, shallow
--> high biodiversity, productivity; strongly influenced by land (e.g. nutrient runoff)
65
high temp, mid precipitation
tropical deciduous forest
e.g. Acapulco Mexico
66
lake primary productivity is mainly limited by...
phosphorous
67
holomictic lake
mixes >= 1 time per year
mono: once per year
di: twice per year
poly: >2x per year
68
hot desert
temp: mostly hot, high seasonal/daily variation
precip: very low, sometimes none
soil: low in nutrients, alkaline, sometimes saline, covered in biocrusts
plants: defended against heat, UV, and herbivory
69
bacterial temperature ranges
from cold to hot:
psychrophiles
mesophiles
thermophiles
hypothermophiles
70
river continuum concept
ecology varies by the width of the river
--> narrow: low amounts of sunlight from tree cover
--> wide: open roof, more primary productivity
71
thermal stratification (lake)
eplimnion (warm, high oxygen concentration) --> metalimnion --> hypolimnion (higher CO2)
--> distinct layers of temp and light affect nutrient availability and organism assemblage; determines stratification regime
72
light + bottom of lake
littoral
--> aquatic vegetation, gradients of plant life
73
natural selection
adaptive evolution (enhances fitness through allele selection)
74
forms of natural selection
directional: preferring one way (e.g. shorter over longer)
diversifying: preferring both extremes over middle (common in populations in different environments)
stabilizing: preferring middle over extremes (less genetic diversity)
75
conditions of natural selection
1. individuals must vary in reproductive success
2. trait must vary between individuals
3. trait variations must be correlated to individual differences in fitness
4. trait must be at least partially heritable
76
OFT parameters
--> prey benefit from increasing s (hiding, crypsis, mimicry)
--> predators benefit from decreasing s (heightened perception, thermal vision, electromagnetism)
--> prey benefit from increasing h (physical defenses, large numbers, refugia)
--> predators benefit from decreasing h (group foraging, specializing finding appendages, eating fast)
77
profundal zone
dark, cold, anoxic
--> no producers, many decomposers/predators
78
marine biomes: temperature
warmer along equator, colder at poles; not 1:1, but general increase in diversity with increase in temperature (exponential for coastal species, logarithmic for oceanic)
--> higher pinniped diversity in colder environments
79
meromictic lake
layers rarely mix (very deep)
80
low temp, low precipitation
tundra
e.g. Point Barrow, Alaska
81
food chain
artificial illustration of energy flow between trophic levels
82
biome identity
determined by temperature and precipitation
--> warmer, wetter biomes have higher primary productivity
83
genetic variation
populations always vary (mutation, recombination in sexual reproduction)
84
tropical rainforest
temp: high year-round
precip: high year-round
soil: weathered, acidic, poor in nutrients
plants: adaptations to tolerate shade/find light quickly; many epiphytes (grow on the surface of other plants), parasites, carnivorous plants
85
level determination
staple isotope analysis can determine animals' primary food sources
--> measure 12C vs. 13C, 15N vs. 14N
--> animal's isotope ratio will match that of its diet
86
natural selection: soapberry bug
long beaks to penetrate fruit & suck juices
--> length of bugs' beaks corresponds to whichever tree is most prominent in its habitat
--> rapid decline in beak length over time as non-native tree with smaller fruit was introduced
87
co-evolution
two species evolve in tandem and exert selective pressure on each other
--> "evolutionary arms race", although not always antagonistic
88
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
all visible light (400-700 nm), absorbed by photosynthetic pigments
--> changes in quantity/quality with latitude, seasons, weather, landscape
--> boreal forest: reflects 10% of PAR, 79% absorbed at canopy; only 2% available to the forest floor
89
optimal foraging theory model
maximization of E/(h+s)
E: amount of energy (calories) from a food item
s: search time per food item
h: handling time per food item (catch, kill, process, eat, digest)
--> which food items should a forager eat? whatever has the most calories per unit time
90
ecological variation by biome: soil
relative proportions of clay, sand, silt
--> affects drainage, pH
--> variation in microbial biomass (fungi, bacteria)
91
boreal forest
temp: temperate, seasonal (warm summers/cold-mild winters)
precip: moderate (but little evaporation)
soil: acidic, organic-rich, sometimes thick and waterlogged (peat)
plants: mostly evergreen conifers, select deciduous trees, shrubs, fire-adapted
92
local drivers of climate variation: elevation
low-mid elevations are better for tree growth; once too high, turns into herbs/lichen/mosses and eventually only ice/snow
93
pathways for water gain/loss
secretion, absorption, root uptake, wind wicking
--> osmosis: movement of water to maintain salt concentration
94
primary production
biomass produced (energy stored) by primary producers
--> production: amount per unit area
--> productivity: rate per unit time
95
low-mid precipitation, low tmep
taiga
e.g. Umea, Sweden
96
homeotherms
"warm-blooded" endotherms
--> generate metabolic heat (released via cellular respiration)
97
large rivers
different types of collectors, more sedimentation (e.g. freshwater clams)
--> more warmth, light = more PP by phytoplankton, zooplankton; carp
98
thermoregulatory adaptations
structural (morphology, internal)
physiologic (hormonal, homeostatic)
behavioral (instinct, learning)
99
tropical savanna
temp: high year-round
precip: seasonal (short wet, long dry seasons)
soil: productive, impermeable subsoil layers trap water
plants: grass-dominated, along with hardy/drought-deciduous trees
100
omnivory
consumption of both heterotrophs and primary producers
101
should a forager be a generalist or a specialist?
generalist in unproductive environments (s > h)
specialist in productive environments (s < h)
102
terrestrial biomes
distinct assemblages of plant and animal groups
--> occupying a given geographical location
--> based on temperature and precipitation
103
primary productivity limiting factor in rivers
nutrient availability
--> allochthorous receives all nutrients from outside the system - fallen leaves, terrestrial animal feces, terrestrial prey
--> autochthonous gets all nutrients from within (photosynthesis from internal organisms)
104
Riparian areas
lush areas along the edge of rivers, lakes within otherwise dry biomes (including temperate grasslands)
105
autotroph
makes its own food
--> photoautotroph: uses sunlight
--> chemoautotroph: uses chemical reactions
--> plants, some prokaryotes
106
ectomycorrhizal fungi (EM)
"around" root system
--> nitrogen
107
evolution
change in allele frequencies in a population
--> mechanisms of evolution act on genetic variation: genetic drift, gene flow, natural selection
108
coastal species biodiversity
concentrated in Indopacific, at equator
109
heterotroph
does not make its own food
--> animals, fungi, some plants, some prokaryotes
110
hydrothermal vents
tectonically active areas
--> extremely hot, low oxygen, acidic
--> chemoautotrophic bacteria oxidize H2S from vents, forming base of unique food web
111
oceanic species biodiversity
concentrated at islands, in mid-latitudes
112
high temp, low-mid precipitation
tropical grassland
e.g. Tahoua, Niger
e.g. Longreach, Australia
113
tectonic lake
basin formed as rift valley from separating tectonic plates (e.g. Lake Superior)
114
glacial lake
basin dug out naturally by a glacier (mountains); if cut into mountain/valley = tarn
--> ice age: receding ice sheets dug into the land beneath them; if ice remains and melts = kettle lake
115
marginal utility of a patch...
drops off as the patch is depleted
116
mid temp, high precipitation
temperate rain forest
e.g. Oregon, USA
117
10% rule
on average, only 10% of energy consumed is assimilated into the body
--> energy lost to metabolism, respiration, excretion; results in limited length of food webs
118
meteoric lake
formed by meteor crater
119
local drivers of climate variation: lake-effect snow
cold wind interacting with warm water off a lake body can direct air upwards, depositing lots of snow on the opposite bank
120
climate variation: precipitation
Earth is split into "cells" based on air and wind behavior
--> above 60°N and below 60°S: polar cell
--> between 60°N-30°N and 30°S-60°S: Ferrel cell
--> between 30°N and 30°S: Hadley cell
--> polar cell: subtropical + polar air masses meet, creating moist temperate climate
--> Ferrel cell: dry descending air absorbs moisture, forming deserts
--> Hadley cell: rising air at the equator is associated with a moist tropical climate
121
detritivory
consumption of organic material (decomposing things: worms, fungi, crabs)
122
mangrove forest
tropical/subtropical
--> main PP is salt-tolerant mangrove tree, which provides habitats for terrestrial and marine organisms
--> protects coastlines, supports fisheries, sequesters carbon
123
mid temp, mid precipitation
temperate deciduous forest
e.g. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
124
ecological consequences of thermoregulation
homeotherms: active under a wider range of temps, but higher energy needs outside of TNZ
ecto/poikilotherms: activity limited by temperature, but lower needs (energy can be redirected)
125
soluble nitrogen availability
better for herbivores than insoluble
--> most amount in the plant during flush (sprouting) and senescence (dying) phases
126
reaction norm
full set of one genotype's possible phenotypes
127
mid temp, low precipitation
temperate grassland
e.g. Saskatoon, Canada
128
assumptions of the MVT
1. foragers recognize patch quality instantly
2. foragers know travel time between patches
3. gain curve is smooth, continuous, and decreasing
4. travel between and searching within the patch have equal energy costs
129
ocean primary productivity
ultimate limit of abundance and diversity
--> proxy measure: chlorophyll concentration
--> more upwelling = more photosynthesis, PP; downwelling = less chlorophyll at the surface
130
ocean primary productivity is mainly limited by...
nitrogen
131
temperate shrubland
temp: temperate, seasonal (warm summers/cold-mild winters)
precip: seasonal (dry summers, wet winters)
soil: dry, compacted, low fertility)
plants: many shrubs, small trees adapted to drought and fire
e.g. Santiago, Chile
132
net primary production
GPP - autotroph's respiration/amount used for its own metabolism
--> ~50%
133
poikilotherms
"cold-blooded", do not regulate temperature whatsoever
--> fish, amphibians, plants
134
acclimation
individual shift in range of physiological tolerances; reversible
--> ability to be flexible can confer greater fitness in a range of situations, depending on necessity
135
artificial lake
man-made reservoir
136
epipelagic/open ocean
light, no structure (photic zone)
--> PP = phytoplankton, but limited nutrient availability
--> low PP per unit area BUT over lots of area
137
character displacement
two species differ more from each other in geographic areas where they overlap versus where they do not (sympatric vs allopatric)
138
medium rivers
tributaries entering a broader system; fine POM from upstream consumed by collectors
--> enough sunlight to support algae, vascular plants, which are consumed by invertebrates
139
realized niche
the actual/observed distribution of a species, limited by interactions (predation, disease, parasitism, competition)
140
food web
more realistic depiction of real ecosystems' multifaceted interactions
141
climate variation: temperature
solar radiation strikes more directly at tropics than at poles
--> solar radiation at poles must travel through the atmosphere
--> warmer temps around equator, coldest at absolute South Pole
--> greater temperature variation at areas further from equator; about equator = variation within 10 degrees
142
temperate grassland
temp: temperate (warm summers, cold winters)
precip: variable (generally wetter in summer)
soil: deep, very fertile
plants: grasses and herbs, adapted to tolerate/benefit from fire and grazing
143
photic zone
light penetrated
BI303 - Evolutionary Ecology
flashcards
Decks in class (2)
# Cards
