Exam 1 Flashcards

Question

posterior/dorsal

Answer 1

back/behind

Answer 2

•Network of tubules continuous with rough ER •Its enzymes (integral proteins) function in –Lipid metabolism; cholesterol and steroid-based hormone synthesis; making lipids of lipoproteins –Absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats –Detoxification of drugs, some pesticides, carcinogenic chemicals –Converting glycogen to free glucose –Storage and release of calcium

Answer 3

* External surface studded with ribosomes * Manufactures all secreted proteins * Synthesizes membrane integral proteins and phospholipids * Assembled proteins move to ER interior, enclosed in vesicle, go to Golgi apparatus

Answer 4

front of knee

Answer 5

fingers/toes

Answer 6

back of elbow

Answer 7

away from an attached base

Answer 8

toward an attached base

Answer 9

towards the mid line

Answer 10

away from the mid line

Answer 11

back of head

Answer 12

outermost layer | lines the wall of the body cavity

Answer 13

innermost layer | directly attached to the surface of the organ

Answer 14

R hypochondraic/epigastric/L hypochondraic R lumbar/ umbilical/L lumbar R inguinal/ hypogastric/ L inguinal

Answer 15

vertical section produces nearly equal divisions

Answer 16

cell reproduction cell 23 pairs of chromosomes splits into 2 identical daughter cells

Answer 17

protein synthesis, growth, replication or organelles replication of DNA chromosomes is double stranded consists of 2 chromatids (1 original and 1 copy) held together by centromere longest phase

Answer 18

nuclear envelope breaks down chromosomes move into the middle centrioles move to opposite sides

Answer 19

chromosomes line up in the middle | spindle fibers extend to either pole and attach to the centromeres

Answer 20

separation of the chromosomes they are dragged to opposite poles

Answer 21

cytokinesis partitions the cytoplasm nuclear envelope beings to form in each cell 2 separate cells

Answer 22

adjoins the ER | modifies/packages/ships/secretes by way of transport vesicles

Answer 23

building block of protein | organic compound contains C,H,O,N

Answer 24

hyaline cartilage covering bone ends at movable joints

Answer 25

wrist bones

Answer 26

ankle bones

Answer 27

a contractile protein of muscle

Answer 28

confined to axillary and anogenital areas • Sebum: sweat + fatty substances and proteins • Ducts connect to hair follicles • Functional from puberty onward

Answer 29

superficial skin region • Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium • Cells of epidermis • Keratinocytes—produce fibrous protein keratin • Melanocytes • 10–25% of cells in lower epidermis • Produce pigment melanin • Epidermal dendritic (Langerhans) cells—macrophages that help activate immune system • Tactile (Merkel) cells—touch receptors

Answer 30

``` middle skin region • Strong, flexible connective tissue • Cells include fibroblasts, macrophages, and occasionally mast cells and white blood cells • Two layers: • Papillary • Reticular ```

Answer 31

deep to skin (not technically part of skin) Mostly adipose tissue Hypodermis (superficial fascia)—deepest region

Answer 32

Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to the dermis Single row of stem cells Also called stratum germinativum: cells undergo rapid division Journey from basal layer to surface Takes 25–45 days

Answer 33

Cells contain a weblike system of intermediate prekeratin filaments attached to desmosomes Abundant melanin granules and dendritic cells

Answer 34

Thin; three to five cell layers in which the cells flatten | Keratohyaline and lamellated granules accumulate

Answer 35

* In thick skin * Thin, transparent band superficial to the stratum granulosum * A few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes

Answer 36

* 20–30 rows of dead, flat, keratinized membranous sacs * Three-quarters of the epidermal thickness * Functions * Protects from abrasion and penetration * Waterproofs * Barrier against biological, chemical, and physical assaults

Answer 37

* Papillary layer * Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels * Dermal papillae contain: * Capillary loops * Meissner’s corpuscles * Free nerve endings

Answer 38

* Reticular layer * ~80% of the thickness of dermis * Collagen fibers provide strength and resiliency * Elastic fibers provide stretch-recoil properties

Answer 39

Hair Follicle • Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus) • Sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb • Stimulated by bending a hair • Arrector pili • Smooth muscle attached to follicle • Responsible for “goose bumps”

Answer 40

Hair Follicle • Extends from the epidermal surface into dermis • Two-layered wall: outer connective tissue root sheath, inner epithelial root sheath • Hair bulb: expanded deep end

Answer 41

* Vellus—pale, fine body hair of children and adult females | * Terminal—coarse, long hair of eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic regions (and face and neck of males)

Answer 42

* Growth phase (weeks to years) followed by regressive stage and resting phase (1–3 months) * Growth phase varies (6–10 years in scalp, 3–4 months in eyebrows)

Answer 43

in external ear canal; secrete cerumen

Answer 44

* Widely distributed * Most develop from hair follicles * Become active at puberty * Sebum * Oily holocrine secretion * Bactericidal * Softens hair and skin

Answer 45

abundant on palms, soles, and forehead • Sweat: 99% water, NaCl, vitamin C, antibodies, dermcidin, metabolic wastes • Ducts connect to pores • Function in thermoregulation

Answer 46

sweat gland | 2 types Eccrine and apocrine

Answer 47

Specialized apocrine glands

Answer 48

produce fibrous protein keratin

Answer 49

* 10–25% of cells in lower epidermis | * Produce pigment melanin

Answer 50

macrophages that help activate immune system

Answer 51

pigment contribute to skin color | Yellow to orange, most obvious in the palms and soles

Answer 52

• Physical/mechanical barriers • Keratin and glycolipids block most water and water- soluble substances • Limited penetration of skin by lipid-soluble substances, plant oleoresins (e.g., poison ivy), organic solvents, salts of heavy metals, some drugs • Biological barriers • Dendritic cells, macrophages, and DNA Functions of the Integumentary System 2. Body temperature regulation • ~500 ml/day of routine insensible perspiration (at normal body temperature) • At elevated temperature, dilation of dermal vessels and increased sweat gland activity (sensible perspirations) cool the body 3. Cutaneous sensations • Temperature, touch, and pain Functions of the Integumentary System 4. Metabolic functions • Synthesis of vitamin D precursor and collagenase • Chemical conversion of carcinogens and some hormones 5. Blood reservoir—up to 5% of body’s blood volume 6. Excretion—nitrogenous wastes and salt in sweat

Answer 53

* Two other locations * Endothelium * The lining of lymphatic vessels, blood vessels, and heart * Mesothelium * The epithelium of serous membranes in the ventral body cavity

Answer 54

* Quite rare in body * Found in some sweat and mammary glands * Typically two cell layers thick

Answer 55

* Limited distribution in body * Small amounts in pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts * Also occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia

Answer 56

1. Cells have polarity—apical (upper, free) and basal (lower, attached) surfaces • Apical surfaces may bear microvilli (e.g., brush border of intestinal lining) or cilia (e.g., lining of trachea) • Noncellular basal lamina of glycoprotein and collagen lies adjacent to basal surface 2. Are composed of closely packed cells • Continuous sheets held together by tight junctions and desmosomes 3. Supported by a connective tissue reticular lamina (under the basal lamina) 4. Avascular but innervated 5. High rate of regeneration

Answer 57

* Most abundant and widely distributed tissue type * Four classes * Connective tissue proper * Cartilage * Bone tissue * Blood

Answer 58

* Binding and support * Protection * Insulation * Transportation (blood)

Answer 59

intracellular fluid containing organelles | Located between plasma membrane and nucleus

Answer 60

passive transport • Simple diffusion • Carrier- and channel-mediated facilitated diffusion • Osmosis

Answer 61

Usually across capillary walls

Answer 62

passive process Movement of solvent (e.g., water) across selectively permeable membrane • Occurs when water concentration different on the two sides of a membrane

Answer 63

Solution with same non-penetrating solute concentration as cytosol

Answer 64

Solution with higher non-penetrating solute concentration than cytosol

Answer 65

Solution with lower non-penetrating solute concentration than cytosol

Answer 66

Transmembrane integral proteins are carriers Transport specific polar molecules (e.g., sugars and amino acids) too large for channels • Binding of substrate causes shape change in carrier then passage across membrane • Limited by number of carriers present

Answer 67

• Certain lipophobic molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids, and ions) transported passively by – Binding to protein carriers – Moving through water-filled channels

Answer 68

• Requires carrier proteins (solute pumps) – Bind specifically and reversibly with substance • Moves solutes against concentration gradient – Requires energy

Answer 69

• Na+ and K+ channels allow slow leakage down concentration gradients • Na+-K+ pump works as antiporter – Pumps against Na+ and K+ gradients to maintain high intracellular K+ concentration and high extracellular Na+ concentration • Maintains electrochemical gradients essential for functions of muscle and nerve tissues • Allows all cells to maintain fluid volume

Answer 70

transport out of cell • Usually activated by cell-surface signal or change in membrane voltage • Substance enclosed in secretory vesicle – Hormone secretion, neurotransmitter release, mucus secretion, ejection of wastes

Answer 71

cellular eating Pseudopods engulf solids and bring them into cell's interior – Form vesicle called phagosome

Answer 72

cellular drinking Pinocytosis (fluid-phase endocytosis) – Plasma membrane infolds, bringing extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes inside cell

Answer 73

• Involve formation of protein-coated vesicles • Often receptor mediated, therefore very selective • Some pathogens also hijack for transport into cell • Once vesicle is inside cell it may – Fuse with lysosome – Undergo transcytosis

Answer 74

• Thinnest of cytoskeletal elements • Dynamic strands of protein actin • Each cell-unique arrangement of strands • Dense web attached to cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane-terminal web – Gives strength, compression resistance • Involved in cell motility, change in shape, endocytosis and exocytosis

Answer 75

* Tough, insoluble, ropelike protein fibers * Composed of tetramer fibrils * Resist pulling forces on cell; attach to desmosomes * E.g., neurofilaments in nerve cells; keratin filaments in epithelial cells

Answer 76

* Largest of cytoskeletal elements; dynamic hollow tubes; most radiate from centrosome * Composed of protein subunits called tubulins * Determine overall shape of cell and distribution of organelles * Mitochondria, lysosomes, secretory vesicles attach to microtubules; moved throughout cell by motor proteins

Answer 77

* Granules containing protein and rRNA * Site of protein synthesis * Free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins that function in cytosol or other organelles * Membrane-bound ribosomes (forming rough ER) synthesize proteins to be incorporated into membranes, lysosomes, or exported from cell

Answer 78

• Double-membrane structure with inner shelflike cristae • Provide most of cell's ATP via aerobic cellular respiration – Requires oxygen • Contain their own DNA, RNA, ribosomes • Similar to bacteria; capable of cell division called fission

Answer 79

* Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidases and catalases * Detoxify harmful or toxic substances * Catalysis and synthesis of fatty acids * Neutralize dangerous free radicals

Answer 80

• Overall function – Produce, degrade, store, and export biological molecules – Degrade potentially harmful substances • Includes ER, golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, lysosomes, nuclear and plasma membranes

Answer 81

``` • Elaborate series of rods throughout cytosol; proteins link rods to other cell structures – Three types • Microfilaments • Intermediate filaments • Microtubules ```

Answer 82

• "Cell center" near nucleus • Generates microtubules; organizes mitotic spindle • Contains paired centrioles – Organelles; small tubes formed by microtubules • Centrioles form basis of cilia and flagella

Answer 83

* Threadlike strands of DNA (30%), histone proteins (60%), and RNA (10%) * Arranged in fundamental units called nucleosomes * Histones pack long DNA molecules; involved in gene regulation * Condense into barlike bodies called chromosomes when cell starts to divide

Answer 84

Cilia movements alternate between power stroke and recovery stroke – Contain microtubules and motor molecules – Cilia move substances across cell surfaces

Answer 85

* Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes * Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins * Degrade nonfunctional organelles * Metabolic functions, e.g., break down and release glycogen * Destroy cells in injured or nonuseful tissue (autolysis) * Break down bone to release Ca2+

Answer 86

* Largest organelle; genetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins * Responds to signals; dictates kinds and amounts of proteins synthesized * Most cells uninucleate; skeletal muscle cells, bone destruction cells, and some liver cells are multinucleate; red blood cells are anucleate * Three regions/structures

Answer 87

• Dark-staining spherical bodies within nucleus • Involved in rRNA synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly • Associated with nucleolar organizer regions – Contains DNA coding for rRNA • Usually one or two per cell

Answer 88

* Double-membrane barrier; encloses nucleoplasm * Outer layer continuous with rough ER and bears ribosomes * Inner lining (nuclear lamina) maintains shape of nucleus; scaffold to organize DNA * Pores allow substances to pass; nuclear pore complex line pores; regulates transport of large molecules into and out of nucleus

Answer 89

• Pores allow substances to pass; nuclear pore complex line pores; regulates transport of large molecules into and out of nucleus

Answer 90

–Whiplike, motile extensions on surfaces of certain cells –Contain microtubules and motor molecules –Longer flagella propel whole cells (tail of sperm)

Answer 91

(bone-forming cells)

Answer 92

(bone-destroying cells) | Cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix

Answer 93

Mature bone cells

Answer 94

* At right angles to the central canal * Connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and central canal * Lacunae—small cavities that contain osteocytes * Canaliculi—hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

Answer 95

* Lamellae * Weight-bearing * Column-like matrix tubes * Central (Haversian) canal * Contains blood vessels and nerves

Answer 96

Homeostatic Imbalances Rickets (childhood disease) causes bowed legs and other bone deformities • Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium

Answer 97

Homeostatic Imbalances | Calcium salts not deposited

Answer 98

* Loss of bone mass—bone resorption outpaces deposit * Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture * Risk factors * Lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form; immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus

Answer 99

* Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements *  Weight-bearing exercise throughout life * Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss * Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins) increase bone mineral density

Answer 100

* Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull * Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization * Unknown cause (possibly viral) * Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphonates

Answer 101

1. Hematoma forms • Torn blood vessels hemorrhage • Clot (hematoma) forms • Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture 2. Fibrocartilaginous callus forms • Phagocytic cells clear debris • Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone within 1 week • Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect bone ends • Mass of repair tissue now called fibrocartilaginous callus Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture 3. Bony callus formation • New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus • Bony callus formation continues until firm union is formed in ~2 months Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture 4. Bone remodeling • In response to mechanical stressors over several months • Final structure resembles original

Answer 102

bone ends penetrate the skin

Answer 103

shoulder point

Answer 104

adomen area

Answer 105

center of chest/bone

Answer 106

inferior to the lumbar | superior to the perineal

Answer 107

scapula/back

Answer 108

Heat, electricity, radiation, certain chemicals Burn = (tissue damage, denatured protein, cell death) Immediate threat: Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, leading to renal shutdown and circulatory shock

Answer 109

• Used to estimate the volume of fluid loss from burns

Answer 110

* Critical if: * >25% of the body has second-degree burns * >10% of the body has third-degree burns * Face, hands, or feet bear third-degree burns

Answer 111

``` 1 sugar • Monomers of carbohydrates • Important monosaccharides – Pentose sugars • Ribose and deoxyribose – Hexose sugars • Glucose (blood sugar) ```

Answer 112

``` • Contain C, H, O (less than in carbohydrates), and sometimes P • Insoluble in water • Main types: – Neutral fats or triglycerides – Phospholipids – Steroids – Eicosanoids ```

Answer 113

• Modified triglycerides: – Glycerol + two fatty acids and A phosphorus (P) - containing group • “Head” and “tail” regions have different properties • Important in cell membrane structure

Answer 114

• Steroids—interlocking four-ring structure • Cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts • Most important steroid – Cholesterol • Important in cell membranes, vitamin D synthesis, steroid hormones, and bile salts

Answer 115

• Four bases: – Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Uracil (U) • Pentose sugar is ribose • Single-stranded molecule mostly active outside the nucleus • Three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA orders for protein synthesis – Messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Answer 116

• Utilizes four nitrogen bases: – Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G) – Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T) – Base-pair rule – each base pairs with its complementary base • A always pairs with T; G always pairs with C • Double-stranded helical molecule (double helix) in the cell nucleus • Pentose sugar is deoxyribose • Provides instructions for protein synthesis • Replicates before cell division ensuring genetic continuity

Answer 117

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) – Largest molecules in the body • Contain C, O, H, N, and P • Polymers – Monomer = nucleotide • Composed of nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group

Answer 118

– Transport fats in the blood

Answer 119

Most important steroid | Important in cell membranes, vitamin D synthesis, steroid hormones, and bile salts

Answer 120

Polysaccharides | fat storage in the body

Answer 121

modified simple sugar (sugar alcohol) | Triglycerides = Composed of three fatty acids bonded to A glycerol molecule

Answer 122

bone breaks incompletely only 1 side of the shaft breaks the other side bends common in children

Answer 123

* Epiphyseal plate cartilage organizes into four important functional zones: * Proliferation (growth) * Hypertrophic * Calcification * Ossification (osteogenic)

Answer 124

internal bone honeycomb of small needle like or flat pieces filled with yellow or red bone marrow

Answer 125

* A gland is one or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid * Classified by: * Site of product release—endocrine or exocrine * Relative number of cells forming the gland—unicellular (e.g., goblet cells) or multicellular

Answer 126

block most water and water- soluble substances

Answer 127

* Contains pericardial cavity | * Surrounds thoracic organs

Answer 128

Epidermis is made of Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Answer 129

small cavities that contain osteocytes

Answer 130

hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

Answer 131

• Common salts in body

Answer 132

(white fibers) • Strongest and most abundant type • Provides high tensile strength

Answer 133

Structure of a Long Bone Compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity • Medullary cavity in adults contains fat (yellow marrow)

Answer 134

Structure of a Long Bone Expanded ends • Spongy bone interior • Epiphyseal line (remnant of growth plate) • Articular (hyaline) cartilage on joint surfaces

Answer 135

Membranes of Bone • Delicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone • Also contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts

Answer 136

``` \Membranes of Bone Outer fibrous layer • Inner osteogenic layer Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) • Osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells) • Osteogenic cells (stem cells) • Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina • Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers ```

Answer 137

* Membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane | * Forms flat bones, e.g. clavicles and cranial bones

Answer 138

* Cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage * Forms most of the rest of the skeleton * Uses hyaline cartilage models * Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification

Answer 139

– Thin, double-layered membranes • Parietal serosa lines internal body cavity walls • Visceral serosa covers internal organs (viscera) – Layers separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid • Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane

Answer 140

disaccharide | Too large to pass through cell membranes

Answer 141

* Primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm * Formed early in embryonic development * Specialize to form the four primary tissues * Nerve tissue arises from ectoderm * Muscle and connective tissues arise from mesoderm * Epithelial tissues arise from all three germ layers

Answer 142

embryonic connective tissue • Gives rise to all other connective tissues • Gel-like ground substance with fibers and star-shaped mesenchymal cells

Answer 143

• Histones pack long DNA molecules; involved in gene regulation • Condense into barlike bodies called chromosomes when cell starts to divide found in chromatin

Answer 144

• Functions of carbohydrates | – Major source of cellular fuel (e.g., glucose)

Answer 145

• Honeycomb of trabeculae

Answer 146

* Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) * 65% of bone by mass * Mainly calcium phosphate crystals * Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression

Answer 147

* New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus | * Bony callus formation continues until firm union is formed in ~2 months

Exam 1 Flashcards

(185 cards)