1
Q
Rigorously follows scientific method, meaning:
- Is strictly empirical ideals with things resolvable or verifiable by observation.
- Is as objective as possible
- Systematically collects data
- Defines terms precisely enough that the truth or falsity of assertions can be tested.
- seeks out disconfirming evidence
A
Cognitive psychology and science
2
Q
____ blindly collecting data so it won’t be bias
A
objective data
3
Q
_________ set up a procedure
A
systematically collect data
4
Q
____ occurs largely in the head and isn’t directly observable. If you cant see it, you look at the effects it has. The results.
A
cognition
5
Q
________, John Watson proposed we focus only on the observable. (stimuli & responses)
A
Behaviorism
6
Q
People like ____ eventually demonstrated that much behavior could not be explained without reference to cognition
A
Tolman
7
Q
___ cognitive psychology was born
A
1960
8
Q
A _____ is an organizational framework used to describe processes. Based on inferences drawn form observations and experiments.
ex: “Heres how your brain is working”
A
model
9
Q
___ an explanation for a bunch of data. explanations for facts
A
theory
10
Q
- Quality of data
- Objective data collected using __________ is best
- Data that replicated
- Degree to which the model fits the data
- If the model fits the data, its a good model
- All models that fit the data equally well are equally good.
A
Is a model any good?
scientific method
11
Q
- Finding data that doesn’t fit the model merely makes a flawed model. (it might still be the best we have)
- The only way to make a model go away is to create a model that ___________
- Whether you like the implications of the model or the model itself is completely irrelevant, and so is whether you believe in it or not.
A
Is a model any good?
fits the data better
12
Q
Applied Research Essentials:
-To be applicable to real life, research and assessments of behavior must have two things:
a.
b.
A
a. Reliability
b. Validity
13
Q
Do the results of our studies point to the same conclusions when collected by different people at different times or using different methodologies? This is known as ________?
A
Research Reliability
14
Q
_____ ____ : were procedures to ensure experimental control of variables and proper sampling followed? this known as _____?
A
Internal Validity
15
Q
_____ _____ : Do the results relate to the real world?
A
Ecological Validity
16
Q
______ ___ and ____ ___ represent contradictory but equally valid concerns.
A
Internal Validity and Ecological Validity
17
Q
When you develop ___ ___ you do not have to give your conscious attentions to things
A
motor skills
18
Q
_____________ involve learning to link perceptions to motor actions without cognitive involvement.
A
perceptual- motor tasks
19
Q
________ involve some cognitive processing- simple perception isn’t sufficient- involves nontrivial processing of a cognitive processing
A
cognitive-motor tasks
20
Q
____ refers to innate and biological attributes that determine our potential at a given task.
A
Ability
21
Q
____ refers to developed abilities as ____ increases, ability to do concurrent tasks increases.
A
Skills
22
Q
_____ __ ____ involves gradual development with practice and diminishing requirement for concentration. Through repeated practice you have reduced cognitive inputs and go auto pilot.
A
Acquisition of skill
23
Q
____ ___ ____ development of a motor program as a mental representation of the skin and how to perform it from instruction
or verbal description.
A
The Cognitive Stage ( stage 1 )
- The Three Stage Model
24
Q
___ ____ ___ - you play less attention, your getting better. The motor program is developed but subtasks comprising the skills behavior aren’t yet fluent. The somatosensory sense gives feedback to compare to the motor control plan, leading to lower-level, closed loop control.
A
The Associative Stage ( stage 2)
- The Three Stage Model
25
The ___________ - the skills is largely under automatic control. Execution now relies on implicit rules. YOUVE LEARNED IT ! You do not have to think about how you do the stage.
The autonomous stage (stage 3)
26
___ ___ is superior to massed practice.
Ex: I'm going to play piano all day until I get it right. You will be more skilled in 8hrs that are SCATTERED rather than 1 hour 8 hrs sessions.
Spaced practice
27
____ even if you're high in aptitude
practice
28
Driving uses ___ ___ skills while driving and when you use cellphones it takes away that ____ level from driving. That is why when you are talking on the phone you are less safe.
high cognitive
29
Use of cell phone while driving results in ___ reaction times to stimuli as well as ___ in risky behavior like following too close.
increased
30
The ____ ___ reduces conscious attention to ____ ____ and also reduces monitoring of risk
competing tasks ; sensory inputs
31
With ___ people often can manage two tasks at once. ____ allows us to make bigger chunks and to use free time to process other material (ex: reading and walking)
practice
32
Massive performance decrement under pressure of competition vs performance in practice falls under what law? ____________
Yerkes Dodson Law
33
Non-stimulating environments, sedatives, alcohol, fatigue reduce arousal. Stimulants, noice, threats, incentives ____ ____
increase arousal
34
Libert and Morris split anxiety into two components, _____ & ____
emotionality and worry
35
____ is associated with lower performance, but not emotionality
worry
36
_____ ____
- we increase our worries
- what lower your performance is too much worrying
- taking TOO much cognitive attention from the task and using it towards thinking about the worries
anxiety responses
37
_____ ___ use high levels of automaticity.. Conscious processing of those skills returns us to earlier states when we were less skilled
Autonomous skills
38
elevated ____ narrows the attentional spotlight, causing neglect of task-relevant stimulus elements, and processing of task irrelevant worries
arousal
39
once you do something ____ you do better than doing it ____
unconsciously ' consciously
40
____ tries to ensure the corrected of execution when we're under pressure, but consciousness doesn't have knowledge of the actual skills and thus reduces performance.
consciousness
41
Make objects that call up similar actions but need different treatment as different in appearance as possible in locations, color, and shape.
Designing Error-Proof Systems
42
Capture errors in computer operation can be reduced by requiring confirmation steps for computer actions like ____
Designing Error-Proof Systems
| -deletion
43
____ Should be designed so their appearance suggests their operation- arranging stove knobs in the pattern of the burners.
Devices
44
- Bottom-Up Visual Processing
- Encompassed by ethological theory
- First proposed by ____
-Gibson
45
Involves ____ ____ (visual cortex)
| -helps us see better
Bottom-up visual cortex
46
- Less available to consciousness
- Better at handling motion-based tasks
- FASTER
Bottom-up visual cortex
47
- more concerned with what were seeing, not where it is or what were going to do with it
- both involved in dual perception
- working together all the time
Top- down visual cortex
48
encompassed by constructivist theory
Top-Down Visual Cortex
49
MORE available to consciousness
Top-Down Visual Cortex
50
Contrast Between The Systems
The _____ ___ is view-centered, dealing with our reactions in relation to where we are compared to the object.
-Less concerned with the object's attributes more concerned with its position relative to us.
____ ___ is vier-centric
dorsal stream
51
The ____ __ is object-centered, dealing with details of the object and what the object is more than where it is relative to us.
ventral stream
52
The ___ __ can underestimate distances to smaller objects because it judges distance by object qualities like overall size, not things like changes in closing distance.
ex: right mirror on the car "objects may be closer than you think"
ventral system
53
the ___ __ is object-centered, dealing with details of the object and what the object is more than where it is relative to us.
The _____ ___ can underestimate distances to smaller objects because it judges distance by objects qualities like overall size, not things like changes in closing distance.
ventral system
54
____ : viewer centered, where they are
dorsol
55
____ : what something is
ventricle
56
Every culture invents ___
music
57
Cultural Universals
| ___ uses rhythms, melodies, harmonies. ____ appears to be wired into us -- it doesn't have to be learned
Music
58
Tones that are in proximity with each other in frequency are grouped. This is known as __________
Ex: notes played by the same instrument or sung by the same voice
Gestalt Principles
59
Notes that are close together in time are ___
grouped
60
Composers and musicians use ___, ___, and ____ to separate melodies.
Loudness, pitch, and location
61
___ recordings are preferred to mono mostly for this reason
stereo
62
___ will put melody in one person's voice, and harmony will be sung by a person with. a contrasting voice.
Bands
63
____ are ___ appreciating music and responding to it.
- through enculturation, we learn common musical tropes-- rhythms, note combinations, etc.
- This is why new music takes some getting use to-- you have to learn the tropes
Babies ; born
64
Acquiring musical skill in a culture involves:
a. _______ : learning the phrases and tropes of your culture
b. _____ learning to produce music, play instruments, control voice, recognize perfect pitch
a. enculturation
| b. training
65
Developmental Aspects
___ ___ is more extensive, requires expenditure of effort plus direct instruction from someone who knows the fine nuances of music appreciation and production
Musical training
66
We spend the first ___ years of our life becoming enculturated ( just hang around music of culture)
10
67
From about __ yrs onwards, some people acquire varying degrees of training (ex: practicing musical, etc)
10
68
Ability is pure ____
biological
69
By the age of ____ :
- children can recognize familiar little melodies
- the prefer melodies to note sequences that aren't melodies
- They prefer rhythmic beats to non-rhythmic beats
6 months
70
Moog noted that by _____ :
| -Children produce their own little melodies while doing other things, seem to enjoy producing them
12-18 months
71
Children "dance" to music by the time they're ___ . But their movements don't coincide with the beat-- they're moving to the music but NOT with it.
6 months old
72
By __ most children synchronize their movements to the beat of the music they're hearing
5 yrs
73
When children learn melodies, are they learning exact pitches in sequence or are they learning relative intervals between notes?
Relative intervals between notes
74
True or False?
Not all practice is equally effective.
-If you're practicing and you hit a problem spot, its better to work on that part at a slower pace over and over until you have it up to speed than to start from the beginning
Why?
Practicing from the beginning means you keep practicing it wrong
T
75
We hear music all the time
- Studies using beepers found people were hearing music in their environment __ -__% of the time.
- When not hearing music, we often have music in our heads (up to ___% of the time)
1. 20-40%
| 2. 45%
76
Most people can pull the starting note of very familiar songs our of their heads with perfect pitch.
-We have the most emotional response to songs from when we were __ - ___ years old. (the reminiscence bump)
13-30 yrs
77
We like our ___ ___ better because its the first time you lived by yourself, first time you got laid, first time hormones got all crazy.
music era
78
stronger than any other form of declarative memory.
Memory of Music
79
- 68 people nationwide have been released from death row as a result of DNA testing.
- Almost all were convicted based on eyewitness identification
Face Recognition
80
We are only good at _____ ____ when we are familiar with the person
Face Recognition
81
Letting 10 guilty people go free is better than convicting one innocent person is known as the _____
Blackstone princple
82
We’re so good at recognizing familiar faces that we may overestimate our abilities with ____ ___
unfamiliar faces
83
_____ : Often involves picking out a suspect from 4 or 5 others in person or in a set of photographs
police lineups
84
- but in a 5 person lineup, people would pick the person the police suspected 20% of the time even if they picked randomly.
- in a 9 person lineup, theoretical odds of identifying the suspect are 11%
Police Lineups
85
the witness will almost always try to identify someone, even if the person is not in the lineup. This is known as
relative judgement theory
86
- we should be comparing the people in the lineup to our memory one at a time, but data indicates most folks compare the photos to each other, finding who looks most similar. (putting them together is comparing them to each other)
- it's essential to include some lineups with all innocent parties, so we know the false identification rate in that situation as well.
Lineup Problems
87
-when asked, “which of these is the person you saw?” people picked someone in 78% of culprit-absent lineups
The way we ____ is important
ask
88
Question form is important:
-when asked if the person is there, only ___picked someone (the way you phrase it has to do a lot with it. The way this phrases it the people picking out the person has a possibility they might NOT be there)
33%
89
-Prevents _____ _____ by making person decide on each alternative separately
relative judgement
90
Rate of ___ ___ when suspect not present drops from 43% to 17%
false identification
91
“It is better to allow 10 guilty parties to go free than to falsely convict one innocent person”)
The Blackstone Principle
92
_____ lineups in the UK also always involve 9 people
Viper
93
Lineup Recommendations
-The foils should match the suspect description as closely as possible
-The witness confidence in identification should be asked immediately after the procedure
-The person conducting the procedure should not know which one is the suspect
The witness should be warned the suspect may not be present
..
94
Studies of these _____________ have found that the resulting pictures were no better at matching the subject than a hand drawing with pencil by the witness!
mechanized face construction systems
95
- Computer -- based systems such as E-Fit and Mac-a-Mug Pro
- Allow facial features to me moved to different positions, resized.
- Use of these required features to be identified in isolation from the face
- Yet humans have trouble recognizing features separately from faces -- known as the _________
The Second Generation
“face superiority effect”
96
-Subjects learned to tell “Larry” from faces identical to it except for the nose
-Despite being able to identify “Larry,” subjects couldn't pick his nose out in isolation
This is known as ________
The Face Superiority Effect
97
E-Fit gets around this by having witness describe the facial feature, then the operator selects matching features and presents theme in context of the whole face.
this system is known as the ___________
Second Generation Systems (still not good at ID people)
98
- Includes E-Vo-Fit, W-Fit-V
- Starts by asking questions about the features verbally
- Results sometimes an excellent fit (early results, few years of testing)
Third Generation Systems
99
- Cashiers failed to identify 50% of the matched foils
- Cashiers accepted 34% of the unmatched foils
- Cashiers rejected 15% of the changed appearance cards, even a few unchanged cards
Photo ID Card Judgements
100
-14% of the fakes were not detected, and this was base-case scenarios situations where the photos were current and the fake ID people made no effort to look more like the picture.
Passport ID Judgements
101
___ are more accurate when given a composite picture of the person made from multiple other pictures
Screeners
102
____ people will not get better because they do not get feedback. They don't know if they are right or wrong because they’ll never know if they let someone who wasn't the person through.
TSA
103
people who have life-long trouble with facial recognition, and probably shouldn't work as screeners. This condition is known as ______
face blind
104
_____ ____ things that affect identification that we can change, such as police lineup procedures.
system variables
105
___ ___things not in control of the criminal justice system such as presence of a weapon, whose results can only be estimated.
Estimator variables
106
Closed Circuit TV IDs are useful at identifying people. T or F?
false
107
is computer Facial ID still a problem?
Yes
108
How fast a vibration is going is known as ____
pitch
109
Molecules vibrating back and forth can have an intensity perceived as loudness. Loud sounds has more energy. Loud sounds can tear your hearing, knock over buildings. Sounds get softer as they get away from the original source because they get further from .............
the original area.
110
_______
Molecular vibrations through a medium
Intensity, perceived as loudness
Sounds
111
- Frequency is on the vertical axis
- Time is on the horizontal axis
- Intensity is depicted by shading
Spectrograms
112
```
The Auditory System
In order to receive the sounds you have to go through three phases
1.
2.
3.
```
1. Reception- bringing the sounds into the inner ear
2. Transduction-- Transmuting the sounds into neural signals
3. Perception- Analyzing the sound waves.
113
The Ear
____- outside structure of the ear. Holds glasses up. It's shape has a purpose, catches sounds that may go past your ear and reflects them into the hole of your ear. Catches sounds and funnels them. Makes sounds louder than they would actually be. Animals that have external ear structures have better hearing.
Pinna
114
_______ : seems to have nothing in it, but it is a vignal part of your ear. You need this buffer because when it gets really cold, the buffer helps keep the cold out so your inner ear will not freeze.
Ear Canal
115
_____- vibrates to the sounds waves. The vibrations of those eardrums are transmitted to your inner ear to the Cochlea.
Eardrum
116
_____ : has 3 little bones. First bone is called hammer. Second one is andvol or incas. Third little bone is sturup.
Ossicles-
117
The ____ turns vibration into neural signals.
cochlea
118
In the ___
Hair cells fire when vibrated. (about 16 thousands hair cells. When hair cells move back and forth it fires. If it moves 20 x a second, it fires 20 x a second.)
Cochlea
119
_____ never grow back. You can damage _______ by loud music, gunshots, any loud noise for a prolonged period of time.
hair cells
120
The Cochlea
The ___, flexible and resonates low pitches.
The ___, stiff and resonates to high pitches.
thin
| thick
121
Both eyes & ears have to deal with _____ _____-- the same object or sounds appears different from different angles. (you have to recognize the same sound when it is produced differently, by different voices. To recognize language, we have to be able to recognize the words such as “dog” whether person 1 says it or person 2 says it. How do we perceive it's the same word even when it's another person saying it.)
perceptual constancy
122
Both eyes & ears have _____ (trying to pick up the sound you are looking for even if they are other noise in the background) , figure/ground (try to recognize someone even if there are other people in the background) problems that must be dealt with
signal/noise
123
Unlike, pictures, though, sounds ____ every time they are produced.
vary
124
When presented with a single pure tone people often report hearing ____ of that tone as well (Frequencies that are multiple of the tone, such as twice its frequency or half its frequency). (-you cannot make a tone without making multiple tones along with it.)
harmonics
125
When presented with ____ of a basic frequency, people often report they hear the basic frequency even when it's not there.
harmonics
126
_____ Suggests we need to consider the whole auditory stimulus and we can't engage in reductionism.
harmonics
127
People presented either two beeps with a short pause in between or two beeps with a buzz in between. (ex: standing behind a chair. You see the upper half and lower half but the chair is blocking the middle part. We still perceive him as one person, not two or cut in half. We know his body continues behind the chair). This is known as _______________
The Good Continuation Principle
128
_____________ : Argued there are certain invariant properties of a stimulus that perceptual systems can take advantage of
For example, the phoneme “b” has almost instant voicing, whereas “p” doesn't, regardless of the frequency of the person’s voice. (ex: someone that has learned English as a second language. They learned to ignore what might be critical to you in the English language. “New York Gankees”
Gibson’s Ecological View
129
The normal acoustic environment usually has multiple sounds overlapping. Breaking out individual parts is called _________
“auditory scene analysis”
130
Bregman argues that we use heuristics to break down the scene using _______, some of which are innate, someone of which are learned.
For example, if a stimulus consisting of a voice in one frequency range is heard a short distance apart with a different sound between, we assume the original voice carried through.
Gestalt principle
131
- Ciocca & Bregman presented a single tone or glides going either up or down, ending at the same point followed by a burst of noise, then one of a 9 following glides or tones.
- Only plausible tones or glides were heard as continuing through
- Called the ________ because the missing part is restored from the beginning & end part
“restoration effect”
132
- If the frequency of “A” was near “B”, they were heard as a single stream, with C as a separate tone, but if B was farther away A & B weren't linked
- If B & C were synchronous, people heard BC grouped and alternating with A
- Thus, there are two competing principle here- ________ & ________
proximity in frequency & temporal contiguity
133
_________ : if a sound is coming straight in front of you, the sound is equally as loud to both ears. If the sound is coming more from the right side, it's going to sound louder on right ear.
The sound is loud on the side of origination- doesn't work well for sounds in the vertical plane. (your ears are separated horizontally. If you hear something vertically, this model is useless.
Amplitude differences
134
___________ : the sound arrives at the close ear slightly ahead of the far ear- doesn't work well for sounds in the vertical plane or frequencies above 2000 Hz. (if you hear a sound time differences is not useful for where (behind or in front) )
Time differences
135
____________ : which frequencies are you hearing? The spectrum balance of sounds changes depending on where it is in the vertical. Works best when sounds covers a wide range of frequencies. (major que for vertical position of things)
Spectral information
136
We can locate sounds to within about _ degrees, and we may narrow that to _ degrees when the sound source is moving and contains a broad spectrum of sound.
_____ has argued that humans evolved in conditions where the ground was usually the only sound reflector and left- right position more important than up, down
5 : 2
Guski
137
People asked to judge the sounds of people walking could judge gender of the shoes that people wore but not the walker- males in females shoes were judged females and vice-versa (the ___ of the shoes can tell a person whether it is a female of male)
souls
138
The same ____ sounds different depending on what sounds precede and follow it. (the ____ are not done the same way but sound alike)
phoneme
139
Phoneme sounds often start with the preceding sound and linger into the following one-- this is known as _____ (we do speech recognition easily but it is a complex process)
“coarticulation”
140
____ is more an orientating system than vision, so ____ doesn't need to be focused to pick up warnings of danger, and surprising sights don't cause alarm like surprising sounds. ( you automatically swing your head if you hear a sound, much more than the visual system. You don't have to be paying attention for the auditory system to alert you, but you have to be paying attention for the visual system to pay attention. You can be asleep and the auditory system will alert you)
Hearing
141
General office noise is disrupting to other ____ ___ , even if it's speech with no meaningful content (ex: people talking in a different language in the background) (ex: you hear the water heater in the background and you go out for a smoke. When you come back into the location, you have to relearn how to adapt to that background again)
cognitive tasks
142
We can _____ to the background noise, but a 5 min break restores the disruption
habituate
143
People usually can't report what went into one ear if they're ignoring it and giving attention to the other one. But they can tell if the voice was male or female, was speech or nonspeech, & they’ll notice if their ____ is spoken. (if at anytime someone speaks your ear to the ear you are not monitoring, your attention automatically turns into one ear. When you are listening into one ear but not listening on the other one, you still process ear to some degree. We can never totally tune out noise, we are always monitoring. Ex: if someone calls out your name)
name
144
If were shadowing one ear and the story switched to the other ear, we’ll follow it seamlessly and may not even notice we switched ears. (people do not notice if they switched ears. If you switch the story from one ear to the other ear, they will follow the story on the other ear. They just automatically do it. this proves that ___________________
YOU ARE ALWAYS MONITORING THE BACKGROUND !!!
145
__ and ____ movements contribute to accuracy of speech perception
When show video of people saying “ga” but shown saying “ba”, they go with what they see over 90% of the time. (People that are not able to do speak recognition. You can help them by speaking normally so they can see your face.)
Lip & Face
146
____ can be used in computer design to provided positive or negative feedback, especially if the event isn't visible, such as when it makes a text correction during editing.
Sounds
147
____ may be difficult to design-- they are sometimes reported as irritating or misleading. (you want a irritating sound when it's something critical/bad. You want something non irritating when it is something good)
Earcons
148
_______ : may be a benefit to cell phones, where visual information is limited. (ex: cell phone noise when it turning off. Visual info is limited because there is a noise made out of a car but you don't know what that noise is because every car has different noises)
Earcons
149
____ : Involves presenting some parameter of data in sound form.
sonification
150
ex of _____ : using an engine speed noise to indicate data-scrolling speed.
sonification
151
Users can distinguish objects, closed or open doors through _____
sonification
152
Design of _____ ____ `is critical: Firefighters wear personnel alerts that emit tones around 3000Hz. But high pitched signal tones are tougher to locate in space. (firefighters hear high pitches sounds, but then it's too loud that they do not know where it is coming from. We do not localize high pitches that easy)
warning sounds
153
____ ___ also are hard to locate left to right and front to the back- mixing in bursts of broad frequency noise significantly increases…..
Ambulance sirens
154
Machinery Alarms
It's important ____ be distinct from one another (they need to have different ___ for different systems. You do not know what is going wrong if the same alarm goes on for every single problem. Minutes count in the situation which is why you are supposed to know what is wrong then and there)
alarms
155
Most _____ ____systems consists of:
- An automatic system to translate sounds to text
- A language understanding unit to improve recognition
- Systems must be trained on a given person’s voice
machinery alarm
156
New approaches are attempting to match visual signals to the _____ ____ , thus “reading lips” while analyzing the sounds.
auditory signal
157
Were fairly ___ at recognizing familiar voices
| We are ___ ___ at recognizing unfamiliar voices
good
| not good
158
We consistently ______ our voice recognition abilities (we think we’re good because we can recognize familiar voices. But if it's unfamiliar voices then we are bad. We _____ how good we are at recognizing voices.)
overestimate
159
______ vastly reduces voice identification
whispering
160
Longer utterances and repeated utterances are __________
more accurately identified
161
Voice recognition enhanced by having the face of the person present-- called ___________
the face overshadowing effect
162
You (can/ cannot - pick one) posit mechanism that run counter to known facts about physics or biology or physiology
cannot
Psy 369 Applied Cognition
flashcards
Decks in class (3)
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