1
Q
What is shaping
A
Differential reinforcement of successive approximations of a target behavior
2
Q
Behavioral acquisition strategies
A
prompting and transfer of stimulus control
chaining
behavioral skills training
3
Q
examples of shaping
A
Language development
* Getting a rat to press a lever
* Animal training
* Rehabilitation (O’Neill & Gardner, 1983)
* Voice volume (Jackson & Wallace, 1974)
* Self-injurious behavior (Schaeffer, 1970)
* Sports applications
* Preparation for medical procedures
4
Q
How to use shaping
A
- define target behavior
- is shaping the preferred procesure
-identify the starting behavior - choose the shaping steps
- choose the reinforcer
- reinforce each successive approximation
5
Q
To identify the starting behavior
A
The person/animal must already exhibit the starting behavior
* Choose a behavior you can build on to achieve the target behavior
6
Q
Choose the shaping steps
A
Each step is a closer approximation to the target behavior
* Steps are not too big
7
Q
Choose the reinforcer
A
- Must function as a reinforcer for the individual
- Consider the effects of satiation during shaping
(use conditioned reinforcers)
8
Q
Reinforce each successive approximation
A
Reinforce first approximation until it occurs a number of times
* Stop reinforcing first approximation and reinforce next approximation until it occurs a number of
times
* Continue until the target behavior occurs
9
Q
What is a prompt?
A
An antecedent stimulus: event that controls a response
* Prompts get the behavior to occur in the
correct situation
10
Q
When do you prompt?
A
During discrimination training?
11
Q
Response prompts
A
Behavior of another person evokes the desired response
- Verbal prompt
- Gestural prompt
- Modeling prompt
- Physical prompt
12
Q
Stimulus prompts
A
Involve change in an antecedent stimulus, or the addition or removal of an antecedent stimulus
- Within-stimulus prompt
- Extra-stimulus prompt
13
Q
Within-stimulus prompt
A
changing the discriminative stimulus(SD)
ex: change position, size, or intensity; teaching to hit a ball and changing the position someone hits it at
14
Q
Extra stimulus prompt
A
adding another stimulus or cue to the SD
15
Q
transfer of stimulus control
A
getting the behavior to occur in the presence of the SD without prompts
-prompt fading
-prompt delay
-stimulus fading
16
Q
Prompt fading
A
a response prompt is removed gradually across learning trials until the prompt is no longer provided
17
Q
Prompt delay
A
you present the SD, wait a certain number of seconds, and then, if the correct response is not made, you provide the
prompt. The time delay between the presentation of the SD and the prompt may
be constant or progressive
18
Q
stimulus fading
A
involve gradually removing an
additional stimulus as the response began occurring reliably in the presence of the SD. Once this additional stimulus is completely removed and the response continues to occur in the presence of the SD, stimulus control has been transferred to the SD
ex: tracing letters
19
Q
A
20
Q
using prompting and fading
A
- Choose the most appropriate prompt
strategy - Get the learner’s attention
- Present the SD
- Prompt the correct response
- Reinforce the correct response
- Fade the prompts over trials
- Continue to reinforce unprompted responses
- Use intermittent reinforcement for
maintenance
21
Q
Using index cards to study example
* What is the SD?
* What is R?
* What is the prompt?
* How to fade?
A
- SD A question on one side
- R: Providing the correct
answer - Prompt: The correct answer on the other side of the index card
- Fading: Look at the answer on the card less and less until you can give the answer without looking
22
Q
Stimulus response chain
A
Each chain of behaviors starts with an SD
Each response produces an SD for the next response
The next response in the chain depends on the occurrence of the previous response
Reinforcer at the end
23
Q
Task analysis
A
Identification of all stimuli (SDs) and responses (Rs) in a
behavioral chain;The process of analyzing a behavioral chain by breaking it down into its individual stimulus-response components
* Example: Eating a bowl of oatmeal
(SD1) bowl of oatmeal, spoon in hand →(R1) put spoon in food
(SD2) spoon in food →(R2) scoop food onto spoon
(SD3) food on spoon → (R3) Put food in mouth → (SR) eat
24
Q
Training sequence for each component of task analysis
A
- Present the SD
- Present prompt
- Provide praise
- Fade prompts
- When response occurs without prompts, move to the next S-R component
- Continue steps 1-5 until done
25
Forward chaining
you teach one component of the chain at a time and then chain the components together, and you
use prompting and fading to teach the behavior associated with the SD at each
step in the chain.
teach the first component, then the second component,
and so on; that is, you move from the front of the chain to the end.
26
Backward chaining
you use prompting and fading to
teach the last behavior in the chain first. By starting with the last behavior in the chain, the learner completes the chain on every learning trial. Once the last behavior is mastered (once the learner exhibits the behavior on presentation of the SD, without any prompts), you teach the next to last behavior. Once this behavior is mastered and the learner engages in the last two behaviors in the chain without any prompts, the next behavior up the chain is taught. This continues until the learner can exhibit the whole chain of behaviors when presented with the first SD, without any prompts.
27
total task presentation
* Execute the whole behavioral chain
* Use graduated guidance
* Fade to shadowing
28
compare and contract shaping, fading, and chaining
All methods are gradual change procedures
* Gradually, through a series of steps, all produce new behavior
* Shaping steps
* Reinforce closer and closer approximations of target behavior (i.e., final
desired behavior)
* Fading steps
* Reinforce the final desired response in the presence of closer and closer approximations to the final desired stimulus for that response
* Chaining steps (forward and backward chaining only)
* Reinforcing more and more of the specific stimulus-response links
29
Modeling: Notes on Effectiveness
the correct behavior is demonstrated for the learner.
Model:
* High status or similarity
* Behavior is reinforced
* Proper context
* Describe important aspects of the model’s behavior
* The learner
* Pay attention
* Rehearsal
* Describe important aspects of the model’s behavior
30
Instructions: describe the appropriate behavior for the learner.
Must be understood
* Given by credible source
* Need for rehearsal
* Instructions + modeling
* Assess attention
31
Rehearsal: is the opportunity for the learner to practice the behavior after receiving
instructions or watching a model demonstrate the behavior
immediately after instructions and modeling
* Rehearsal in the proper context
* Immediate praise/reinforcers
* Corrective feedback
* Repeat rehearsal
* Work from easy to more difficult
32
Feedback: praise or other reinforcers for correct performance. When necessary, it may also involve further instruction in how to
improve performance if there are errors in the rehearsal
Feedback (2 components)
Immediate praise
Always praise something
Descriptive praise
Instructions for one aspect
Do not criticize
Mix praise & corrective feedback
33
Promoting Generalization(after training)
* Use realistic role plays
* Incorporate real life stimuli
* Practice skills outside of sessions
* Arrange to reinforce skills outside of
sessions
34
In situ assessment
assessment in natural environment; trainee unaware
35
In Situ training
Trainer enters situation
* Trainee rehearses the skills
36
BST and Three term contingency
A three-term contingency, involving antecedents, the behavior, and consequences of the behavior, should be used in any teaching situation.
Antecedent ---------> Behavior ---------> Consequence
Provide instructions
and modeling ------> Rehearsal -----> Praise for correct
performance/feedback
And possibly...
Further instructions -----> Rehearsal --------> Praise
37
BST in Groups
* Opportunity for
* Multiple models/multiple
situations
* Observation of others’ rehearsals
* Observe feedback
* Evaluate others’ performance
* Offer feedback
* Downside: Less individual rehearsal
and feedback
38
BST is used to teach new behaviors that can be
simulated in a _______________
role-play
39
To use BST, the learner has to be able to
follow _______________ and
imitate ______________
instructions; models
40
After instructions and modeling, the learner
must have the opportunity to _____________
the behavior
rehearse
41
Rehearsal occurs immediately after
___________ and ___________
instructions and modeling`
42
Rehearsal should occur in the proper
______________
context
43
When correct behavior occurs, provide
____________ immediately
praise/reinforcer
44
Feedback involves___ and___
praise for correct performance and instructions for improvement
45
Functional Assessment
Process of gathering information about
(identifying) antecedents and consequences that
are functionally related to the occurrence of a
problem behavior
46
Social positive reinforcement
attention, praise, reactions, activities, things (mediated by others)
47
Social negative reinforcement
escape from tasks, activities, interactions (mediated by others)
48
Automatic positive reinforcement
sensory stimulation (not mediated by others)
49
Automatic negative reinforcement
relief from pain, anxiety, or other aversive stimulation (not mediated by others)
50
Indirect methods in functional assessments
Interviews/questionnaires
* Commonly used
* Disadvantage: interpretation
* Outcome: develop hypotheses
51
Direct Observation in Functional Assessment
* Observe
* Advantage: recording as antecedents and consequences occur
* Disadvantage: take time (and more effort); results in correlation
* Outcome: develop hypotheses
52
Interval and Real-Time Recording
Divide observation period into time interval
* Record at end of interval (note time for real-time
53
Functional Analysis Experimental Methods
Manipulate antecedents and/or consequences
* Observe changes in the behavior
* Replicate
54
Conducting a Functional Assessment
Begin with an interview or other indirect assessment method
* Develop a hypothesis about the antecedents and consequences (the function of the behavior)
* Conduct direct observation assessments
* Confirm or modify original hypothesis based on direct observation assessment
* If assessments are consistent, develop and implement treatment that addresses the function of the behavior
* If indirect and direct assessments are not consistent, conduct further functional assessments
* Conduct functional analysis to confirm hypothesis or resolve inconsistency between indirect and direct assessment
55
Conducting a functional assessment is always
the first step in using behavior modification procedures to decrease problem
behaviors. T or F
TRUE
56
Functional Analysis(Experimental Methods)
Experimental methods of conducting a functional assessment manipulate antecedent and consequent variables to demonstrate their influence on the problem behavior. experimentally
demonstrates a functional relationship between the antecedents and consequences
and the problem behavior. In a functional analysis, you follow the problem behavior with potential reinforcers to see which consequences increase (strengthen) the behavior, and/or you present different antecedent events (possible EOs) to see which ones evoke the behavior
57
Exploratory Functional Analysis
A number of possible reinforcers are evaluated in the functional analysis (e.g., attention,
escape, tangible) along with a control condition in which no EOs or reinforcers for the problem behavior are present.
58
Hypothesis testing functional analysis
One test condition and one control condition are used to test the hypothesis that a particular reinforcing consequence is maintaining the problem behavior
59
Extinction following positive reinforcement
When a behavior is positively reinforced, extinction means the person no longer gets the positive reinforcer following the behavior.
60
Extinction following negative reinforcement
When a behavior is negatively reinforced, extinction means that the person no longer escapes from the aversive stimulus following the behavior.
61
Using Extinction 1 and 2
1. Define problem behavior(s)
2. Conduct a functional assessment
62
Using Extinction Step 3
Eliminate the reinforcer and address
* Functionality of reinforcer
* Control of reinforcer
* Safety of behavior
* Extinction burst tolerance
* Consistency
63
Using Extinction Steps 4 and 5
4. Consider the schedule of reinforcement prior
to extinction
* May want to switch to continuous
reinforcement prior to using extinction
5. Use differential reinforcement
* Alternate behaviors (next lecture topic)
64
Using Extinction step 6
Generalization and maintenance
* Use extinction in all relevant circumstances
* Be consistent
* Use extinction long-term
65
Differential Reinforcement
a process/procedure in which a specific
desirable behavior is followed by a
reinforcer, but other behaviors are not
The result is an increase in the desirable
behavior and extinction of the “other”
behavior
66
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior(DRA)
Reinforcer is delivered for desirable
(alternate) behavior
Extinction for the problem behavior
ex: A child’s good table manners are reinforced with praise and by passing the requested food. The child’s bad table manners are extinguished by ignoring and not passing food
67
Differential Negative Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior
Desirable behavior produces escape or
avoidance of aversive stimulus
Undesirable behavior does not produce
escape/avoidance
Example: no head banging results in
removal of helmet
68
Variations of DRA
DRI: Differential reinforcement of
incompatible behavior
FCT: Functional communication training or
differential reinforcement of
communication (DRC)
69
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior(DRO)
Reinforcer is delivered for the absence of
the problem behavior in intervals of time
– Intervals are chosen based on the
baseline level of the problem behavior
– Extinction for the occurrence of the
problem behavior
This is also called differential reinforcement
of zero rate of behavior
70
Examples of DRO
Attention delivered every 15 sec without
SIB
Breaks from academic tasks delivered
every 20 minutes for the absence of
disruptive behaviors
Access to a favorite toy given each ½ hour
for the absence of fighting with siblings
Candy if a child goes 10 minutes without
interrupting
71
Whole Interval DRO
the problem must be absent for the whole interval
72
Momentary DRO
the problem must be
absent at the end of the interval
73
DIfferential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding
Used to get a behavior to occur less
Reinforcer contingent on lower rate of
responding
74
Full-Session DRL
The reinforcer is delivered when fewer than a specified number of responses occurs per time period (session)and at the end of the session
The timing of responses IS NOT important`
75
Spaced-Responding DRL
The reinforcer is delivered
– for a response when it is separated from the
previous response by a specified interval of
time
The timing of responses IS important
76
Examples of Full Session DRL
Reinforcer given for smoking fewer than 5
cigarettes per day (day=session)
Dessert allowed if the child gets up from
the table fewer than 3 times during dinner
(dinner=session)
Access to the iPad if less SIB during
homework time (homework time=session
77
Examples of Spaced-Responding DRL
Child called on to answer in class only if it
has been 10 minutes since he last raised
his hand
Person with intellectual disability who eats
too fast allowed to take a bite of food only
if 15 sec since last bite of food
Access to the iPad if 15 minutes has
passed since last bout of SIB
78
Comparing Whole Interval DRO and Spaced-Responding DRL
Whole Interval DRO: at the end of the
interval, the reinforcer is delivered for the
absence of the behavior
Spaced-responding DRL: at the end of the
interval, the reinforcer is delivered for the
occurrence after a fixed amount of time
In whole-interval DRO and spaced-
responding DRL: a response before the
end of the interval resets the interval
79
Implenting DRA steps 1-3
. Define alternative behavior
2. Define problem behavior
3. Identify the reinforcer (preference
assessment)
1. SSA
2. PSA
3. MSA
80
Implenting DRA steps 4-7
4. Reinforce the desirable behavior
▪ Immediately, consistently, and continuously
5. Eliminate reinforcer for undesirable behavior
▪ Extinction
6.Switch to intermittent reinforcement to maintain
the behavior
7. Program for generalization
▪ Include many people, many situations, etc.
Behavior Modification
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