1
Q
governmental actors in education governance (7)
A
- legislature and individual legislators
- legislative staff
- governors
- state board of education
- chief state school officers
- state department of education
- judicial branch
2
Q
legislature and individual legislators (5)
A
- policymaking
- approving the budget/funding for education
- exercising its investigatory functions
- education committees
- financial committees
3
Q
legislative staff (3)
A
- office staff: controls access to the legislature
- professional staff: have professional experience with previous legislation
- centralized staff agency: can be called upon for research
4
Q
governors (2)
A
- highly influential; catalyst for issues
- usually able to bring the 3 policy streams together to create a policy window
5
Q
state board of education (6)
A
5 major legislative tasks:
1. develop the regulations for implementing education policy
2. approve the certificate requirements for both teachers and administrators
3. monitor the educational assessment (standardized tests)
4. decide what the minimum requirements to graduate high school are
5. decide what the accreditation standards are
judicial task:
1. appeals process
6
Q
chief state school officers (3)
A
- usually professional educators
- serve as the head of the state’s Department of Education
- can have a great influence on the direction of the board
7
Q
state department of education (2)
A
- headed by the CSSOs
- carry out policy (collecting data, ensuring school compliance)
8
Q
judicial branch
A
plays a vital role, especially in school financing
9
Q
non-governmental actors in education governance (2)
A
- education interest groups (teachers unions, NEA, PTO)
- non-education interest groups (religious/ethnic groups, think tanks, Chamber of Commerce)
10
Q
pros of the centralized bureaucracy in educational governance (3)
A
- standardize the delivery of education
- more equitable allocation of resources
- has the organizational capacity
11
Q
cons of the centralized bureaucracy in educational governance (3)
A
- expensive and inefficient
- emphasize process over results
- inflexible
12
Q
governance reform efforts (2)
A
- decentralized, consumer-driven reforms (school-based management, open enrollment)
- more centralized approaches (state takeovers, mayoral takeovers)
13
Q
evidence between governance and educational outcomes like student achievement (2)
A
- research often focuses on how policies were implemented rather than if the policy was successful
- unclear connection between governance and outcomes: what are the causal factors? what makes a student do better?
14
Q
in principle, the role of school boards…
A
were to provide public credibility, stewardship, and direction to local education as well as a political vehicle for the citizenry to exercise authority over the schools
15
Q
Delargardelle’s main conditions for effective school boards (5)
A
- setting clear expectations for measurable outcomes
- ensure conditions for success
- build the collective will of staff and community
- time to learn together as a board
- accountability for themselves and the staff to reach instructional goals
16
Q
influences on the roles of superintendents and school boards (5)
A
- a general loss of confidence in institutions and leaders
- an increase in special interest group activism
- more expectations from the public for involvement in policy decision-making
- a growing cultural, ideological, and values divide in local communities
- a shift to centrist policymaking coupled with a simultaneous devolution to distributed leadership and shared decision-making
17
Q
general trends of mayoral takeovers (3)
A
- improved student achievement in the elementary grades
- helped the lowest-achieving schools
- lowered per-pupil costs
18
Q
differences between old and new fundamentalism (2)
A
- the movements’ respective goals: whereas old fundamentalism basicially sought to protect Protestant status and privilege, new fundamentalism seeks to reclaim some measure of status and privilege in public life
- where old fundamentalism was bipartisan, and sought to influence Democratic and Republican views on issues ranging from the teaching of Darwinism to legislation against liquor, new fundamentalism is closely identified with the Republican Party
19
Q
similarities between old and new fundamentalism (2)
A
- both old and new fundamentalism were united on a core set of issues that were considered central to their faith identities
- outside of these core issues, fundamentalist consensus in both eras began to fray on issues that were considered more peripheral such as anti-Masonry for the old fundamentalists or educational politics for the new fundamentalists
20
Q
reasons for the decline of old fundamentalism (2)
A
- the decline of anti-modernism as a political issue
- the onset of a common foreign threat to communism
21
Q
the 2 centralizing themes of the Christian right
A
- the attempt to restore to American life the sanctity of family
- appropriate rules of sexual conduct and belief
both of which are rooted in the conviction that Christian morality has been replaced by secular values
22
Q
criticisms of the single salary approach to teacher compensation (4)
A
- fails to attract and attain high-quality teachers
- market demand
- teacher performance
- high-ability individuals
23
Q
concerns about merit pay programs (3)
A
- validity of evaluation procedures
- goals other than student achievement
- distorts incentives that are often important for teaching (cooperation)
24
Q
framework for understanding policy studies (4)
A
- what’s the motivation?: is the research following good scholarly practices?
- what’s working, why is it working, and how?
- what’s the method?: are there any methodical flaws?
- what’s the prescription?: what is the recommendation based on a study?
25
types of school choice programs (2)
1. limited educational choice (magnet schools, alternative learning centers, open enrollment, charter schools)
2. full educational choice (vouchers, private scholarship programs, tax credits)
26
3 types of educational entrepreneurial categories
1. school builders
2. talent providers
3. tool builders and service providers
27
school builders
launch new schools and new networks of schools
28
talent providers
focus on improving the quality of instruction and leadership by finding more promising ways to recruit, develop, and support
29
tool builders and service providers
provide distance learning, instructional devices, data systems, curricula, educational programs, or other services that leverage technology or research
30
the formal barriers to innovation
the laws, rules, and regulations that mandate particular behavior, from staffing ratios to funding formulae
31
what did Hanushek find about money and academic achievement? (2)
1. school expenditures have increased but only flat performance
2. the heart of the problem is the way we reward teachers (single-salary approach) does not provide good teachers and doesn't give teachers incentives to be a good teacher
32
concerns about Hanushek's report (2)
1. Hedges and Greenwald find that Hanushek is being too simplistic and is not "talking about the whole story"
2. there have been important changes in the size and comprehension of education
33
3 patterns that emerge in comparing positive relationships of schooling to earnings studies to negative ones (Betts)
1. unit of analysis is important
2. studies of workers before and after the 1960's
3. studies of workers in their 20's or early 30's
34
unit of analysis is important (2)
1. when the studies focus at the district or individual school level, they tend to find a weak relationship between funding and subsequent earnings
2. studies that focus on spending at the state level tend to have a positive relationship
35
studies of workers before and after the 1960's (2)
1. stronger relationships tend to be found before the 1960's
2. weak relationships tend to be found after the 1960's
36
studies of workers in their 20's or early 30's (3)
1. workers haven't reached their full potential at that point in life
2. increased expenditures can have a modest gain in earnings
3. additional years of education have a higher rate of return
37
3 categories of fairness of school funding distribution
1. progressive
2. neutral
3. regressive
38
progressive school funding distribution
total state and local revenue per pupil is systematically higher in local public school districts with higher poverty concentrations (controlling for differences in competitive wage variation, economies of scale, and population sparsity)
39
neutral school funding distribution
total state and local revenue per pupil is not systematically different between local public school districts with higher and lower poverty rates (controlling for differences in competitive wage variation, economies of scale, and population sparsity)
40
regressive school funding distribution
total state and local revenue per pupil is systematically lower in local public school districts with higher poverty concentrations (controlling for differences in competitive wage variation, economies of scale, and population sparsity)
41
importance of peer-review and replication of studies
helps weave out bias and evaluate the credibility of the work
42
main rationale for mayoral takeovers
education defines a city. if the schools look bad, the mayor looks bad, and vice versa
43
describe how the mayor can provide wrap-around services
mayors are in a better position and have the fiscal capacity to deal with socioeconomic issues. they recognize the need to coordinate education and social services as a critical component in reducing the achievement gap, ensuring that students are ready to learn, increasing graduation rates, preparing students for postsecondary education and the world of work, and meeting many low-income students' basic physical and mental health needs.
44
how can the mayor provide "back office" functions for schools
by taking care of functions relating to managing lunchrooms, information technology, bus systems, payroll, human resources, legal services, grounds maintenance, facilities management, and school construction and modernization
45
how was the Lakeview case a catalyst for reform in Arkansas?
because the Supreme Court's ruling led to some massive changes in education policy for the state
46
the relationship of the judicial role to the legislative and executive roles in the Lakeview case
the judiciary played a direct supervisory role while the legislature mostly acted in an administrative arms role. because the legislators could not agree on what to do, the Governor (executive) took on a managerial role
47
shifting roles of superintendents (6)
1. teacher-scholar (1865-1910)
2. manager (1910-1930)
3. democratic statesman/political strategist (1930-1950)
4. applied social scientist (1950-1980)
5. communicator (1980-2000)
6. civic engagement (2000-present)
48
teacher-scholar superintendent role (1865-1910)
superintendents provided instructional oversight while school board members performed legislative and executive functions
49
manager superintendent role (1910-1930) (2)
1. evident confusion and conflict between authority roles
2. for superintendents, it was an opportunity to advance their role to a more prestigious level above the teaching staff, providing a much-needed educational expertise to the management of the school system, and diminishing the inefficiencies of local political influences that were sometimes not in the best interests of students
50
democratic statesman/political strategist superintendent role (1930-1950)
superintendents were forced to engage with their communities in a new way, competing for dwindling funds in an attempt to maintain a competitive edge over city managers who were fighting to provide other public services
51
applied social scientist superintendent role (1950-1980s) (2)
1. caused by the emergence of the practical applications of social science theory, postwar beliefs that democratic leadership was too idealistic, and an increasing criticism of public education
2. prompted superintendents to use social sciences to address larger societal problems and shift from a focus on internal operations to external legal, political, social, and economic influences
52
communicator superintendent role (1980s-2000s) (2)
1. brought on by the national shift from an industrial to an information age, and was further fueled by a belief that change could only be sustained by an in-school/in-district, cultural transformation
2. superintendents were taught that stakeholder buy-in was critical to successful reform efforts, making the superintendent's ability to communicate effectively for the purpose of influencing and leading diverse and varied, external and internal constituents critical
53
civic engagement superintendent role (2000s-present)
a form of deliberative democracy through a more direct intervention in school improvement planning and implementation
54
shifting roles of school boards (2)
1. elite (trustee)
2. arena (delegate)
55
elite school board role
tend to take little input from the public, working outside of the public forum to ensure unanimity in the public board meetings, and believing that their election has given them the mandate to make decisions based on their own personal agendas and belief systems
56
arena school board role
seek multiple and constant public input, value open debate, and believe that they should make decisions based on their constituents' wishes even when they conflict with their own
57
types of sanctions available for the judiciary (2)
1. can issue injunctions that direct parties to do or not do something
2. can instruct legislative bodies to remedy an unconstitutional action
58
types of incentives available for the judiciary (3)
1. legislative financial awards
2. large monetary awards for civil rights cases incentivize people to initiate litigation more than mandates
3. can dampen litigation and disincentivize parents from bringing some lawsuits in special cases
59
the major causes of the explosion of judicial decisions in the latter part of the 20th century (3)
1. A Nation at Risk
2. special education
3. more state statutes and reforms in education
60
why might education policymakers encourage judicial involvement
to avoid taking stands on politically sensitive issues
61
governance
the power to decide who wins and loses
62
3 arguments presented in favor of school board election for representativeness
1. while mayoral election turnout is higher, voter decisions are spread thin over broad mayoral issues
2. while school board election turnout is about 20% overall, parents with children in schools currently represent about 25% of the total electorate
3. voter turnout for board elections increases dramatically when there are issues of community dissatisfaction with the school
63
reason role incongruity is a key concern for superintendents
superintendents have expertise and look at the big picture in a way that board members do not, so they have to change their policy to please the board, even if it means creating a weaker policy
64
why is education considered a peripheral issue for the Christian right? (2)
1. it's peripheral unless it can be tied to family or sexuality
2. there is variation among purely educational beliefs among denominations
65
evidence about student achievement, parental satisfaction, and stratification (3)
1. no choice program has shown consistently positive or negative impact on student achievement
2. parental satisfaction improves with school choice
3. increased stratification by race, class, and/or religion
66
disruptive innovation to be real depends on...
real disruptive innovation promotes new efficiencies, addresses unmet needs, performs consistently at high levels, and is scalable
67
How does Zelman v. Simmons-Harris (2002) versus Bush v. Holmes (2006) illustrate the interplay of federal and state courts? (2)
1. Zelman: Supreme Court upheld a scholarship program that allows disadvantaged students to use public funds for private education
2. Bush: Florida Supreme Court ruled that Florida's voucher program unconstitutionally diverted public funds into separate, nonuniform, private systems that compete with and reduce funds for public education
68
how the importance of judicial tests is highlighted by desegregation cases (3)
1. the Supreme Court influences law by using their interpretive powers and develops tests to do so
2. after Brown, the SC said schools must convert segregated school systems into unitary ones
3. simply removing barriers or being "neutral" wasn't enough; desegregation efforts must integrate
4. the court began relaxing on this stance and now is more favorable toward neutrality
69
how does Lau v. Nichols (1974) illustrate the interplay of federal and state courts? (3)
1. the SC interpreted the protection against national origin discrimination as obligating schools to give ELL special assistance but didn't stipulate what specific assistance had to be provided
2. the Lau remedies outlined approaches schools could use to provide equal educational opportunities but were controversial
3. there was still great variation in implementation and the federal government eventually allowed for more flexibility
70
numbers game
states will create a formula to "empirically" validate low spending by creating arbitrarily low standards that they know they can meet
71
New York numbers game (3)
1. set a low outcome bar
2. excluded higher-cost districts
3. chose figures that would create lower minimum spending
72
Rhode Island numbers game
1. based their minimum spending on old data from other low-spending states
2. chose to use New Hampshire which spends little; excluded Vermont which spends a lot
73
1970s: Marland Report: Gifted Education (2)
1. Office of GT created
2. giftedness is defined
74
1970s: Marland Report: Special Education (2)
1. special education law enacted
2. funding issues because of the law's unfunded mandates on states
75
1950s-60s: Brown v Board: Gifted Education (3)
1. first advocacy groups
2. Sputnik launched, emphasis on math and science
3. focus on equity of opportunity
76
1950s-60s: Brown v. Board: Special Education (2)
1. focus on inclusion, separate but not equal
2. special education aligns with civil rights
Education Policy
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