1
Q
What are the attachment phases?
A
- Preattatchment phase
- Attachment-in-the-making
- Clear-cut attachment
- Formation of reciprocal relationship
2
Q
Pre-attachment phase (phase one of attachment)
A
- birth to six weeks
- built-in signals (grasping, smiling, crying, gazing into the adult’s eyes) help bring newborns into close contacts with other humans, who comfort them
- “no ‘real’ attachment to the mother
3
Q
Attachment in the making (phase 2 of attachment)
A
- 6 weeks to 6-8 months
- infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than they would a stranger
- infants learn that their own actions affect the caregivers behavior
- begin to develop sense of trust - the expectation that the caregiver will respond when signaled
- still do not protest when separated from caregiver
4
Q
Clear-cut attachment (phase 3 of attachment)
A
- 6-8 months to 18 months-2 years
- baby begins to display separation anxiety or become upset when caregiver leaves (does not always occur, this depends on infant temperament and situation)
- toddlers will approach, follow, and climb caregiver in preference to others
- toddlers will use the familiar caregiver as a secure base from which to explore
5
Q
Formation of reciprocal relationship (phase 4 of attachment)
A
- 18 months to 2 years and on
- rapid growth in representation and language enables toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parent’s coming and going and to predict her return
- as a result, separation protest declines
- children will use persuasion and request to alter her goals child asks mom to read before leaving them with babysitter
6
Q
In what attachment phase do you see separation anxiety?
A
The third phase aka clear cut attachment phase exhibited from 6-8 months to 18mths-2yrs
7
Q
What is an internal working model?
A
Internal working mode - a set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support in times of stress. It becomes a vital part of personality, serving as a guide for all future close relationships
* with age, children revise and expand their internal working model as their cognitive, emotional, and social capacities increase and as they interact with parents and form close bonds with adults/siblings/friends
8
Q
How are self recognition tests done?
A
- 9-28month olds are placed in front of a mirror with red dye on their nose, those older than 18-20 touched/rubbed nose, indicating self-recognition
- children will point to themselves in photos and refer to themselves by name or as “I” or “Me”, indication self-recognition
- MIGHT BE IN CLASS VIDS
9
Q
What are Erikson’s Psychosocial stages for each of the periods we have been studying? What are the conflicts associated with each?
A
- Basic Trust v. Mistrust (birth - 1 year) - from warm, responsive care, infants gains a sense of trust, or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs if infants are neglects or handled harshly, baby will protect themselves by withdrawing from ppl and things around her
- Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years) - parents can foster autonomy by permitting reasonable free choice and not forcing or shaming the child. Success leads to feelings of autonomy and independence, while failure leads to feelings of shame & doubt, this can happen if parents are too under/over controlling or set the bar too high
- Initiative v. Guilt (3 to 6 years) - Initiative — a sense of ambition and responsibility — develops when parents support their child’s sense of purpose. If parents demand too much self-control, children experience excessive guilt
10
Q
What is temperament?
A
Early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity (quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity) and self-regulation (strategies that modify that reactivity)
* examples of temperament - cheerful, upbeat, active, energetic, calm, prone to angry outbursts, cautious, etc
11
Q
What are Thomas and Chess’s temperament classifications?
A
- The easy child (40% of the sample) -
Quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences - The Difficult Child (10% of the sample) - is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely
- is also at high risk for adjustment problems — both anxious withdrawal and aggressive behavior in early and middle childhood - The slow-to-warm-up child (15% of the sample) is inactive, shows mild/low-key reactions to environment stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences
- show excessive fearfulness and slow, constricted behavior in the late preschools years when expected to respond actively and quickly
12
Q
What is meant by goodness of fit?
A
A model proposed by Thomas and Chess to explain how favorable adjustment depends on an effective match, or good fit, between a child’s temperament and the child rearing environment
- match of a child’s temperament to the demands, expectations, and opportunities of the environment
- it explains how temperament and environment can together produce favorable outcomes
- encourages of an affective match between child rearing and child’s temperament
13
Q
How are secondary emotions different from primary emotions?
A
Primary emotions (or basics emotions) - happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust — are universal in humans and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival (happiness, anger, sadness, and fear are the four basic emotions)
Secondary emotions (self-consciousness emotions or societal emotions) - appear in month 18-24 months, they involve injury to or enhancement of our sense of self
- shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, pride
- these emotions are guided by adults, adults let child know when to feel shame, guilt, embarrassment, etc
14
Q
What are the attachment categories?
A
- Secure attachment
- Insecure-avoidant attachment
- Insecure-resistant attachment
- Disorganized/Disoriented attachment
15
Q
Secure attachment
A
- 60-65%
- infants use parent as a secure base
- may or may not cry when separated from parent, if they do it’s bc the parent parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger
- convey clear pleasure when parent returns and crying, if any, is reduced immediately
16
Q
Insecure-avoidant attachment
A
- child is unresponsive to parent when she is present
- usually not distressed when the parent leaves
- react to stranger the same way as they react to parent
- during reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet parent
- when picked up, they fail to cling
17
Q
Insecure-resistant attachment
A
- 10%
- before separation, infant seeks closeness to the parent and fail to explore
- distressed when parent leaves
- when parent return, infant combines clinginess with anger and resistive behavior (struggling when held, hitting and pushing)
- many continue to cry after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily
18
Q
Disorganized/disoriented attachment
A
- this pattern reflect the greatest insecurity
- at reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviors
- looking away from parent while being held and approaching parent with flat/depressed emotion
19
Q
What does emotional regulation refer to?
A
- the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals
- requires voluntary effortful management of emotions
- improves rapidly during first few years due to brain development and caregiver support
- caregivers teach socially approved ways of expression
20
Q
What is the most common attachment pattern across all societies that have been studied?
A
Secure attachment
21
Q
What does social referencing mean?
A
- actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation
- 8-10 months, infants engage in social referencing
- social referencing is important for the development of secondary emotions
22
Q
How is attachment typically assessed?
A
Quality of attachment of infants between ages 1-2 is assessed by the Strange Situation. Designed by Mary Ainsworth, it takes the baby through 8 short episodes in which brief separations from and reunions with a parent occur in an unfamiliar play room
23
Q
Strange Situation (Epsiodes, Events, Attachment behavior observed)
A
Episode 1:
Event: researcher introduces parent and baby to playroom and then leaves
Attachment behavior observed:
Episode 2:
Event: Parent is seated while baby plays with toys
Attachment behavior observed: parent as a secure base
Episode 3:
Event: stranger enters, is seated, and talks to parent
Attachment behavior observed: reaction to unfamiliar adult
Episode 4:
Event: parent leave room. stranger responds to baby and offers comfort if baby is upset
Attachment behavior observed: separation anxiety
Episode 5:
Event: parent returns, greets baby, and offers comfort if necessary. stranger leaves room
Attachment behavior observed: reaction to reunion
Episode 6:
Event: parent leaves room again
Attachment behavior observed: separation anxiety
Episode 7:
Event: stranger enters room and offers comfort
Attachment behavior observed: ability to be soothed by stranger
Episode 8:
Event: parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort if necessary, and tries to reinterest baby in toys
Attachment behavior observed: reaction to reunion
Episode one lasts about 30 seconds, the rest last about 3 minutes
24
Q
How do researchers study self-control in children?
A
Researcher study self-control by giving children tasks that require delay of gratification (the ability to wait for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act)
Girls are typically more self-controlled than boys bc they are more developed in attention, language, and suppressing negative emotions
25
How can parents help toddlers develop compliance and self control?
* respond with sensitivity
* give advance notice of change in activities
* offer many prompts and reminders
* positive reinforcement
26
What theory of attachment recognizes the infant’s emotional tie to caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival?
The Ethological Theory of Attachment
(Bowlby’s Theory)
The infant’s relationship with the parent begins as a set of innate signals that call the adult to the baby’s side. Over time, a true affectionate bond forms, supported by new cognitive and emotional capacities as well as by a history of warm, sensitive care
27
What is a scale error?
Toddlers attempt to do things that their body size makes impossible, such as trying to put on dolls’ clothes, sit in a doll-sized chair, or walk through a door too narrow to pass through
* declines between ages 2 and 3 1/2
28
What happens to appetite in early childhood?
Appetite decline because growth has slowed
* stick to familiar foods and are wary of new foods
* children become picky eaters
29
What factors are strongly associated with childhood injury?
* high activity level and greater impulsivity in boys
* temperamental and personality characteristics such as inattentivness, overactivity, irritability, defiance, aggression
* poverty
* single parenthood
* low parental education
* lack of high-quality childcare
* weak parental vigilance
30
What is animistic thinking?
The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions
* egocentrism (failure to distinguish others symbolic viewpoints from one’s own) is responsible for this
31
Describe the three mountain task
* Each mountain is distinguished by its color and by its summit. One has a red cross, another a small house, and the third a snow-capped peak. Children at the preoperational stage respond egocentrically. They cannot select a picture that shows the mountains from the doll’s perspective. Instead, they simply choose the photo that reflects their own vantage point
* the most convincing demonstration of egocentrism
32
Define conservation
Conservation refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when they’re outward appearance changes
* when you poor water in a tall/slim glass into a short/wide glass, the amount of water still remains the same
* children have a difficult time with this idea
33
According to Piaget, what are the limitations of pre-operational thought?
* the most fundamental deficiency of preoperatiinal thought is **egocentrism** (failure to distinguish others symbolic viewpoints from one’s own)
* inability to conserve
* centration (focusing on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features)
* irreversibility (an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to starting point)
34
What is egocentric speech?
* now called private speech
* self-directed speech that children use to plan and guide their behavior
* When a child talks to themselves, usually well engaged in an activity or event, without attempting to communicate with others
35
What is Vygotskys view in private speech?
Vigotsky disagreed with Piaget on private speech. He believes that children speak to themselves for self-guidance. As they get older the speech is internalized as silent, “inner speech”
* vigotsky refers to egocentric speech as private speech
* children who freely use private speech during a challenging activity or more attentive and involved and perform better than their less talkative age mates
36
Scaffolding
Scaffolding refers to adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child’s current level of performance
* when the child has little notion of how to proceed, the adult uses direct instruction, breaking the task into manageable units and suggesting strategies. As the child’s competence increases, effective scaffolders gradually and sensitively, withdraw support, turning over responsibility to the child.
37
Guided participation
* a broader concept than scaffolding
* shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication, thereby allowing for variations across situations and cultures
38
Zone of proximal development
- Area where a person who is trying to learn something can accomplish it without the help of a mentor
* make-believe play is a unique broadly influential zone of proximal development in which children try out a wide variety of challenging activities and acquire many new competencies
* Private speech is also important to zone of proximal development
39
What does the information processing approach focus on during early childhood?
Information processing focuses on cognitive operations and mental strategies that children use to transform stimuli flowing into their mental system
* attention
* memory
* theory of Mind (tested with false belief test)
* emerging literacy
* mathematical
40
Recognition VS recall memory
Recognition: ability to tell whether he stimulus is the same or as similar to one they have seen before (4 and 5 year olds perform nearly perfectly)
Recall: generating a mental image of an absent stimulus
Recall is poorer than recognition in young children
41
What is script?
General descriptions of what occurs in when it occurs any particular situation, used to organize and interpret routine experiences
* scripps help children, organize and interpret routine experiences
* scripts can be used to predict what will happen in the future
* children rely on scripts and make believe play, and when listening to and telling stories
* script support children’s planning by helping them represent sequences of actions that lead to desired goals
42
What is autobiographical memory?
Long lasting representations of personally meaningful one-time events
* elaborative style parents scaffold the autobiographical memories of their young children, who produce more organized in detail personal stories when followed up later in childhood and adolescence
* by asking deep rooted questions rather than just repetitive ones
43
Define metacognition?
* thinking about thought; a theory of mind, or a coherent set of ideas about mental activities
* awareness, and understanding of various aspects of thought
* awareness of mental life usually happens at age 3
44
Ordinality VS Cardinality
Ordinality
* displayed between 14 and 16 months
* order relationship between quantities — for example, that three is more than two, that two is more than one
Cardinality
* displayed at age 3 1/2 to 4
* principal that the last number in accounting sequence indicates the quantity of items in a set (the last number is the total)
45
What are child centered preschools all about?
In child centered programs, teachers provide activities from which children select, and much learning takes place through play
In contrast, in academic preschools, teachers, structure, children’s learning, teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill
46
Give an example of overregularization
Overextension of regular grammatical rules to words that are exceptions
Examples:
“My car BREAKED” or “We each got two FOOTS”
47
Define pragmatics
The practical, social side of language, concerned with how to engage in effective and appropriate communication
48
What are recasts and expansions?
Adults generally provide indirect feedback about grammar by using two strategies, often in combination.
1: Recasts - restructuring in accurate speech into correct form
2. Expansions - elaborating on children’s speech, increasing its complexity
Example: child says “red car” and you say “big red car”
49
What are false belief tests? How are they done?
A way to assess a child’s ability to understand that others may have different beliefs and perspectives than themselves
* unmarked bandaid box test
50
Guided participation vs scaffolding
Guided participation is when we assist our students as they perform adult like activities. Scaffolding is when adults and other more competent individuals provide some form of guidance or structure that enables children to perform tasks at their zone of proximal development.
51
What is the negative outcome of early childhood (according to Erickson)?
For Erickson, the negative outcome of early childhood is an overly strict conscience, or super ego, that causes children to feel too much guilt because they have been threatened, criticize, and punished excessively by adults
52
Describe a preschoolers self-concept…
Self - concept : the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes define who he or she is
Preschoolers’ self concepts consist largely of observable characteristics, such as their name, physical appearance, possessions, and everyday behaviors
* a warm, sensitive parent-child relationship fosters a more positive, coherent early self-concept
* elaborate parent-child conversations about personally experienced events that focus on children’s thoughts, feelings, and subjective experiences play an especially important role in early self-concept
53
What is an important motivator of prosocial behavior?
Empathy serves as a motivator if prosocial behavior or altruistic behavior (actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self)
54
Associative VS cooperative VS parallel play
Mildred Parten concluded that social development proceeds in a three-step sequence
No social activity: unoccupied, onlooker behavior, solitary play
Parallel play: child plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior
Social Interaction:
1. Associative play: children engage in separate activities but exchange toys and comment on one another’s behavior
2. Cooperative play: a more advanced type of interaction, children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme
55
Describe children’s friendships in early childhood…
Friendship does not yet have a long-term, enduring quality based on mutual trust
* Nevertheless, friendships can be remarkably stable as long as peers remain in same social group
* Interactions between friends are especially positive, reflecting greater support and intimacy than do other peer relationships
* friendships change frequently
56
What do various theories say about the development of moral behaviors?
All theories of moral development recognize that conscience begins to take shape in early childhood. And most agree that at first, the child’s morality is externally controlled by adults and gradually becomes regulated by inner standards.
Freud Psychoanalytic Theory: stresses emotional side of conscience development — in particular, identification and guilt as motivators of good conduct
* children obey superego to avoid guilt, a painful emotion that arises each time they misbehave
* in his theory, fear of punishment and loss of parental love motivate conscience behavior
Social Learning Theory: moral behavior is acquired through modeling
* helpful or generous models at a young age increases young children’s prosocial responses
Cognitive Developmental Perspective: emphasizes thinking — children’s ability to reason about justice and fairness
* children as active thinkers about social rules
57
What do we know about frequent and harsh punishment?
* Frequent punishment promotes immediate compliance but not lasting changes in behavior
* harsh punishment can lead to the development of serious lasting problems such as depression, aggressions, antisocial behavior, poor academic performance in childhood. And depression, alcohol abuse, criminality, health issues, and family violence in adulthood
* it models aggression
* induces sense of being threatened which leads children to focus on own distress rather than responding sympathetically to others
* causes children to avoid punitive parent
* can spiral into serious abuse
* can transfer to next generation
* is elevated among less educated, economically disadvantaged parents and conflict ridden marriages as well as parents with mental health problems
58
What are strategies of positive discipline?
Strategies of positive discipline: timeout, withdrawing privileges
59
What is relational aggression?
Aggression that damages another’s peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation (different from verbal and physical aggression)
60
What is gender typing? How do parents contribute to gender typing?
Gender typing: any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes
Parents provide children with indirect cues about gender stereotypes through the language they use
* generic utterances : “boys can be sailors” or “most girls don’t like trust”
* traditional family gender rules
61
How to reduce gender typing?
* delay exposure to stereotyping
* limit traditional family gender rules
* provide non traditional models
* encourage flexible beliefs
62
What is gender constancy?
A full understanding of the biologically based permanence of one’s gender, including the realization that sex remains the same even if clothing, hairstyle, and play activities change
63
What is gender schema?
An information-processing approach to gender typing that combines social learning and cognitive-developmental features to explain how environmental pressures and children’s cognitions work together to shape gender-role development
64
What are the various parenting styles?
Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved
65
Authoritative parenting style
Authoritative:
* is warm, responsive, attentive, and sensitive to the child’s needs
* engages in adaptive behavioral control, makes reasonable demands for mature behavior and consistently enforces and explains them
* permits the child to make decisions in accordance with with readiness
* encourages the child to express thoughts, feelings, and desires
* when parent and child disagree, engages in joint decision making
Characteristics of children: upbeat mood, self-control, task persistence, cooperativeness, high self esteem, social and moral maturity, and favorable school performance
66
Authoritarian parenting style
Authoritarian:
* is cold and rejecting and frequently degrades the child
* engage in psychological control
* engages in coercive behavioral control: makes excessive demands for mature behavior, uses force and punishment
* often uses psychological control, withdrawing live and intruding on child’s individuality and attachment to parents
* makes decisions for child
* rarely listens to child’s pov
Characteristics of child: anxious, unhappy, low self-esteem and self-reliance, react with hostility and force, act out, boys show high rates of anger, do poorly in school,
67
Permissive parenting style
Permissive:
* is warm but overindulgent or inattentive
* is lax in behavioral control: makes few or no demands for mature behavior
* permits the child to make many decisions before the child is ready
Characteristics of child: impulsive, disobedient, rebellious, overly demanding, dependent on adults, show less persistence in tasks, poorer school achievement, more antisocial behavior
68
Uninvolved parenting style
Uninvolved:
* is emotionally detached and withdrawn
* is also lax in behavior: makes few or no demands for mature behavior
* is indifferent to the child’s decision making and point of view
* parents are emotionally depressed or detached and overwhelmed by life stress
* is considered neglect when extreme
Characteristics of children: poor emotional self-regulation, school achievement difficulties, depression, and antisocial behavior
69
What are the stereotypes of obese children?
Lazy, sloppy, ugly, stupid, self-doubting, and deceitful
70
What are the consequences of obesity?
* risk of lifelong health problems (high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, respiratory abnormalities, insulin resistance, inflammatory reaction — all predictors of heart disease, circulatory difficulties, type 2 diabetes, gallbladder disease, sleep and digestive disorders, cancer, premature death) and stroke, kidney failure, eventual blindness, leg amputation
* being stereotyped, no social acceptance/social isolation
* peer teasing, rejection, low-self esteem
* psychological disorder (anxiety, depression, defiance/agression, suicidal thought and behavior)
71
What are contributors to obesity?
* heredity
* environment/ethnic minority
* lack of knowledge about healthy diet
* tendency to buy high-fat and low-cost foods
* family stress
* undernourishment is early years
* parental feeding practices or when parents are overweight
* frequent eating out
* insufficient sleep
* hours children devote to screen time and less time to physical exercise
72
What types of treatments are regarded as the most effective for childhood obesity?
The most effective interventions are family-based and focus on changing weight related behaviors
* also monitoring dietary intake and physical activity
* work best when weight problems are not severe
73
What plays a large role in boy’s gross motor superpriority during this age period?
Experiences play a substantial role.
* parents hold higher expectations for boys athletic performance, and children easily absorb these messages
* girls are less positive than boys about the value of sports and their own sports ability
*
74
What are some criticisms of adult organized youth sports?
They overemphasize competition and substitute adult control for the children’s experimentation with rules and strategies, setting the stage for emotional difficulties and early athletic dropout
75
How can parents increase effectiveness if punishment?
Consistency
Warm parent-child relationship
Explanations
76
Strategies of positive parenting:
* use transgressions as opportunities to teach
* reduce opportunities for misbehavior
* provide reasons for rules
* arrange for children to participate in family routines and duties
* when children are obstinate, try compromising and problem solving
* encourage mature behavior
