1
Q
genotype vs phenotype
A
genotype: all of persons genes, inherited by biological parents
phenotype: persons observable characteristics and traits, combo of genes influenced by environment
2
Q
cell parts and their connections
A
- DNA is in cell nucleus
- DNA tightly coiled around positions making up our CHROMOSOMES
- GENES are segments of DNA
- each GENE has unique address on CHROMOSOME
3
Q
patterns of inheritance
A
AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT: 1 allele seen in phenotype, other silent. freckles, dimples, right handedness
AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE: 2 silent alleles expressed. sickle cell anemia, left handedness
CODOMINANCE: 2 dominant alleles expressed, Blood type AB
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE: Blend of 2 alleles expressed, hair colour or hair shape
4
Q
Methods of studying heritability
A
TWIN STUDIES: compare phenotypes of monozygotic and dizygotic twins. if traits heritable, monozygotic will be more similar
ADOPTION STUDIES:child + biological parents vs adoptive parents. if heritable, similar to biological
TWIN-ADOPTION STUDIES: twins adopted into different households. if heritable, twins will be similar even if raised in different households
5
Q
gene environment correlations
A
PASSIVE GENE ENVIRONMENT: characteristics of patent and child are similar
EVOCATIVE GENE ENVIRONMENT: characteristics of child evoke environments that support genetic traits
ACTIVE GENE ENVIRONMENT: child seeks environment or experience that supports genetic traits
6
Q
Cell process of brain development
A
NEUROGENESIS: creation of new neurons from stem cells
CELL MIGRATION: migration of neurons from ventricular to sub ventricular zone to final home
SYNAPTOGENESIS: loss of synapse from lack of use or cell death
MYELINATION: formation of fatty sheath on neuronal axis to facilitate conduction of electrical signals
7
Q
homozygous vs heterozygous
A
homozygous: same alleles expressed trait
heterozygous: different alleles for each gene
8
Q
twins
A
monozygote: identical, zygote splits in 2 during 1st days of pregnancy, same chromosomes
dizygote: fraternal, 2 eggs released and fertilized by different sperm, unique set of chromosomes
9
Q
number of neurons
A
- 14-16 billion neurons in adult cortex
- 61 billion glial cells
10
Q
assembly of brain
A
- genome is blueprint for brain
- axons, dendrites, synapses are the wiring for electricity
11
Q
when brain development happens
A
- most parental brain growth occurs within 3-4 years
- changing in myelination occur from 70-80 years
- neurulation happens from week 3-4
- differentiation of different areas in brain occur in fetus
12
Q
differentiation of neural tube
A
- bottom 50% become spinal cord
- intermediate part becomes brain stem
- top part becomes brain
13
Q
passive cell displacement
A
- new cells push old cells out
- short distances
- outside inside spatiotemporal organization
14
Q
active neuronal migration
A
- long distances
- inside outside spatiotemporal organization
- know how to get there via glial cells
- neuron propels self along glial cell surface
- complete around 7 months
15
Q
cell elaboration
A
- increase size and complexity of dendritic tree
- dendrites seen 15 weeks of gestations
- 1st synapses appear 23 weeks of gestations
16
Q
synaptogenesis
A
- peak synaptic production occurs around 8 months
- peak differs by brain area though all reach peak by 2 years of age
- follows use it or lose it rule
17
Q
visual cortex
A
shows earlier developmental landmarks than the frontal cortex such as in synaptic density
18
Q
myelination and white matter
A
- grey matter is neurons themselves
- white matter is myelinated axons through which signals are transmitted (approx 50% of brain material)
- plays significant role in cognitive development
19
Q
myelination
A
- critical for development and onset of many observable behaviours
- myelination in temporal cortex is related to language processing
- frontal areas related to IQ
20
Q
myelination development
A
- beings in utero in peripheral areas (motor then sensory areas)
- 1st year: brain and cerebellum
- cortical areas start prenatally but show protracted myelination into early adulthood
- sensorimotor areas completed by 4 years
- parietal and temporal (language, attention, memory) by puberty
- prefrontal and frontal (working memory, reasoning, decision making) by early adulthood
21
Q
neural development
A
- cell proliferation (fetus)
- cell migration (7 months)
- cell elaboration (culling, myelination)
22
Q
brain stem
A
- basic attention
- reflexes (breathing, swallowing)
- balance
- arousal
- consciousness
- cardiac and respiratory functions
- information to and from body pass through brain stem on way to brain
23
Q
cerebellum
A
- coordination of voluntary motor movement, balance, equilibrium, muscle tone
- possibly involved in memory
24
Q
occipital lobe
A
- centre of processing visual information
25
temporal lobe
- perception and recognition of objects
- langauge
- highly associated with memory skills
26
parietal lobe
- two functional regions
- integrates sensory info to form single perception
- constructs spatial coordinate system to represent world around us
27
frontal lobe
- higher order cognitive abilities
- reasoning and decision making
- planning
- pre-frontal involved in working memory and decision making
28
two processing streams
- dorsal stream: metrics, motion, object location, info for eye movements
- ventral stream: shape, colour, identify and recognize object, long term memory
- strokes that damage ventral stream result in visual agnosia
29
occipital lobe timeline
- after birth visual cortex shows rapid development
- most modules for processing information such as colour, depth size, motion are functional by 3 months
- motion and binocular disparity onset between 7 and 12 weeks
30
differential onset features led to proposals of differential development of dorsal and ventral pathways
- ventral stream processing development precedes dorsal stream development
- structural MRI suggest similar developmental trends
31
parietal lobe timeline
- maturation is later than visual
- does not show activity increase until 3 months
- saccade activity not exhibited until after 6 months
- mental rotation task activity doesn't reach adult levels until 8-12 years old
- integration of parts of a pattern or object does not reach adult level activity until 12-14 years
32
temporal lobe timeline
- exhibits activity to hiding and reappearance of object at 6 months
- face activity 2-3 months with specialization of face areas through first year
- speech activity around 6 months and strengthening during first year
33
types of plasticity
EXPERIENCE-EXPECTANT: brain adapt to presence or absence of experience that is typical of human experience (occurs during critical period)
EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT: difference in brain structure develop from idiosyncratic differences in experience (occur throughout development, reflects individual differences in experience)
34
Perceptual narrowing
- developmental pattern
- perception less specialized in younger infants
- more specialized in older infants
35
intermodal/multimodal perception
- ability to link different perceptual experiences
- combine senses
- watching a movie
36
amodal information
- abstract info not tied to one sense
- concept of rhythm can hear or be felt
37
inter-sensory redundancy
-same info through multiple senses.
- clapping hands
38
frames of reference
EGOCENTRIC FRAME OF REFERENCE: use own perspective and note where particular location is in relation to own body
ALLOCENTRIC FRAME OF REFERENCE: locations encoded in relation to external feature in environment eg. landmark
39
causal perception
recognition that one action produced a particular effect
40
theories of development of object knowledge
PERCEPTION-ACTION: perception and understanding of objects is related to and probably develops from their actions on objects
VIOLATION OF EXPECTATION: measure how long infants look at different types of events and draw inferences about their perception and knowledge of objects from looking patterns
41
core knowledge
- innate, domain specific processes (core domains) for learning about the world
42
sensory register
visual and auditory information is encoded and stored briefly
43
zone of proximal development
- range of activities and tasks just beyond children ability to do on own
- can succeed task with help of another
44
theories of infants acquisition of knowledge PIAGET
- infant development is function of their active exploration of environment and adaptation of their schemas
- experience, reflexes and senses are starting points for understanding
- domain general mechanisms of accommodation and assimilation
- development is discontinuous stages characterized by qualitative way of thinking and representing the world
45
theories of infants acquisition of knowledge VYGOTSKY
- development resulting from social interactions
- innate and experience contribute to understanding but starting points not strong at birth
- domain general processes of social interactions with a more advanced other
- development is continuous and gradual
46
theories of infants acquisition of knowledge INFORMATION PROCESSING
- analogy of computer to specify what information infants encode and how they process it
- innate processes are general, infants processing of information is influenced by experience
- processes are very general, recognizing association between 2 things
- development is continuous and gradual
47
theories of infants acquisition of knowledge CORE KNOWLEDGE
- born with knowledge of objects, space, number and agents
- innate core knowledge in some domains, use to learn from experience
- domain specific
- continuity from infancy to later childhood and adulthood in these core domains
48
theories of infants acquisition of knowledge SYSTEMS AND CONNECTIONIST THEORIES
- development reflects emergence of new abilities as function of gradual, continuous changes
- general biological factors interacting with experience
- very general processes
- discontinuities in developmental emerge from continuous development
49
piagetian sensorimotor stages
1. reflexive schemes:
- 0-1 month, action reflexes
- reflex give way to more intentional actions (sucking, grasping)
2. Primary circular reactions:
- 1-4 months, first change in actions
- first adaptations in schemes
- sucking fingers, grasping object
3. secondary circular reactions:
- 4-8 months, apply schemes to objects and modify schemes when needed
- learn to produce interesting effects (shaking a rattle)
4. coordination of secondary circular reactions:
- 8-12 months, begin to link together distinct schemes
- applies schemes to new situations
- using lid and spoon to bang pot
5. tertiary circular reactions:
- 12-18 months, intentionally use schemes to act on world and explore
- experiment as manipulate objects
- how to fit objects through openings
6. mental representation:
- 18-24 months
- form representations of objects or events
- can represent objects symbolically
- pretend to put doll to sleep
50
Richard's (1988, 1991)
- measured heart rate change to assess if infants are actively processing during attention- holding
- during attention-getting (orienting) heart rate accelerates
- attention-holding (sustained attention) heart rate remains decelerated
- infant less likely to be distracted by 2nd stimulus when heart rate deceleration
51
Selective attention
VISUAL POP OUT: stimuli with unique property jump out from the surrounding environmentt and capture attention
SIRETEAMU AND REITH: foun 10-12 month olds exhibited pop out
ATKINSON AND BRADDIK: found 3.5-4.5 month exhibited pop out
52
Cohen (1972)
- measured latency to fixate and duration of fixation to checkerboard patterns
- checkerboard size influenced latency to look
- number of checks influenced duration of looking
- suggests after the attention-getting phase there is attention-holding phase
53
bahrick, walker and neisser (1981)
- 4mo olds familiarized to display which 2 images were superimposed
- superimposed images split and measured to which one they looked to
- infants looking at novel one indicating they had selectively attended
54
colour perception
- 1-5 day olds, red green yellow or blue
- can see red yellow and green can’t see blue
- adult like colour perception develops by 3-4 mo
55
binocular cues
- difficulty coordinating the two eyes early on
- binocular disparity: some binocular fixation occurs at 1 and 2 mo
- reliable fixation does not occur before 3 montjs
- don’t use disparity until 3-5mo
56
monocular cues
- interposition: object is in front of another and occludes part of the one behind
- size: objects closer appear larger
57
granrud and yonas depth perception
- 7mo but not 5mo reach for occluded display
- 7mo but not 5mo reached for apparently closer object
58
cohen and younger object features
- found 6 week discriminate orientation but not form change
- 3mo discriminate form change
59
slater (1991)
- newborn infants show novelty preference for the change form test stimulus
60
younger and cohen feature relations
- 4,7,10 mo olds habituated stimuli in which 2 of the attributes were correlated while third varied
- 4mo respond to changes in features but not relations
- 10mo respond to change in feature relations
- 7mo represent transition period , respond when all features correlated
61
object perception
- 2mo can see whole form
- 3mo perceived whole form
- 4mo perceived whole form even when can’t see whole form
- 7mo extract similarities of form even when they vary
62
cognitive development: Piaget
- mental abilities are not random but a set of organized cognitive structures that infant constructs
- occurs through adaptation to environment
63
adaptation: 2 mechanisms
ASSIMILATION: constructing environmental events in terms if ones existing cognitive structures and ways of thinking
ACCOMODATION: changing existing cognitive structures and ways of thinking to apprehend environmental events
64
causality
Leslie 1982
- infants habituated with one condition and tested with another
- results say infants perceived direct launching as different from delayed reactions
- no prior movement condition was discriminated
- no age deference, indicated even young infants can perceive causality
65
object permanence
- understand objects exist independent of ability to perceive them
- substage 4: infants can search for hidden objects
- limitations: A not B task
- Baillargeon found that not until 4.5mo of age did infants increase attention to impossible event
66
bower (1966, 1967, 1982)
- infants as young as 20 days see alternative as surprising
67
numerical cognition
- wynn (1992)
- infants 3 months will look longer when number of items doesn't match total of what they had previously seen
- infants can do basic math
