1
Q
differentiate between the concepts of ancestral/primitive traits from derived/advanced traits
A
Ancestral/Primitive (Plesiomorphic): Traits inherited from a distant ancestor; shared widely among a group. Derived/Advanced (Apomorphic): Newly evolved traits not present in the common ancestor of the entire group.
2
Q
define plesiomorphies
A
Ancestral/primitive traits inherited from a distant ancestor; shared widely among a group.
3
Q
define apomorphies
A
Derived/advanced traits that are newly evolved and not present in the common ancestor of the entire group.
4
Q
were early horses browsers or grazers
A
Browsers (ate leaves and soft vegetation).
5
Q
how many horse genera are extant
A
One (Equus: horses
6
Q
what are prokaryotes
A
Single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
7
Q
what are the 2 prokaryotic domains
A
Bacteria and Archaea.
8
Q
what are archaeobacteria
A
Archaebacteria (now simply Archaea) are a domain of single-celled microorganisms
9
Q
what are extremophiles
A
Organisms that thrive in physically or geochemically extreme conditions (e.g.
10
Q
what conditions can various extremophiles tolerate
A
High or low temperatures
11
Q
what are eubacteria
A
Eubacteria (now simply Bacteria) are the common domain of prokaryotic organisms.
12
Q
what are cyanobacteria
A
Photosynthetic bacteria (often called blue-green algae) that were crucial in producing Earth’s oxygenated atmosphere.
13
Q
what are microbial mats
A
Layered sheets of microorganisms
14
Q
what are eukaryotes
A
Organisms whose cells possess a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
15
Q
what are the 4 eukaryotic domains
A
Protista (Paraphyletic), Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
16
Q
what are mitochondria and how did they evolve
A
Organelles in eukaryotic cells that generate most of the cell’s energy. They evolved from an aerobic bacterium engulfed by a host cell (endosymbiotic theory).
17
Q
what is a nucleus
A
A membrane-bound organelle in eukaryotic cells that contains the cell’s genetic material (DNA).
18
Q
what are protists
A
A paraphyletic group of eukaryotic organisms that are not plants
19
Q
what are fungi
A
Eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs and absorb nutrients after secreting digestive enzymes (absorptive heterotrophs).
20
Q
differentiate flagella and cilia
A
Flagella are long, whip-like tails (usually one or a few) used for propulsion. Cilia are short, hair-like structures (usually many) used for movement or to move fluid over a cell.
21
Q
what are protozoans
A
non-photosynthetic (heterotrophic) protists that are motile
22
Q
what are 3 common unicellular algal taxa
A
Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, and Coccolithophores (Calcareous Nannoplankton).
23
Q
when did dinoflagellates, diatoms, and coccolithophores/calcareous nanoplankton first appear in the fossil record
A
Dinoflagellates: Triassic. Diatoms: Jurassic/Cretaceous. Coccolithophores: Triassic.
24
Q
what are dinoflagellates
A
Unicellular, typically marine, protists characterized by two flagella and a skeleton (test) often made of cellulose.
25
what are red tides
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) often caused by a rapid population increase of certain dinoflagellates that produce toxins.
26
what is important about dinoflagellate cysts
They are fossilizable, organic-walled resting stages that are very important for dating and paleoenvironmental reconstruction in sedimentary rocks.
27
what are diatoms
Unicellular algae with porous skeletons (frustules) made of opaline silica.
28
what are diatom skeletons made of
Opaline silica.
29
what rock do diatom skeletons form
Diatomite
30
what are calcareous nannoplankton; what are coccolithophores
Calcareous Nannoplankton are very small planktonic protists; Coccolithophores are the main group, characterized by tiny, plate-like calcium carbonate skeletons.
31
what are the skeletons of coccolithophores made of
Calcium carbonate in the form of calcite plates called coccoliths.
32
what rock do coccolithophore skeletons form
Chalk and calcareous oozes.
33
what are red and green algae
Multicellular photosynthetic protists that are the ancestors of land plants (green algae) and important reef-builders (red algae).
34
do some red and green algae have skeletons
Yes
35
what are the skeletons of red and green algae made of
Calcium carbonate.
36
what rock forms from the skeletons of red and green algae
Limestone (especially reef and bank limestones).
37
what are foraminifera
Unicellular, amoeba-like protists that construct multi-chambered, shelled tests (skeletons). They can be planktonic (floating) or benthic (bottom-dwelling).
38
are foraminifera autotrophic or heterotrophic
Primarily Heterotrophic
39
what are the skeletons of foraminifera made of
Primarily calcium carbonate.
40
why do geologists need to learn about foraminifera
They are excellent index fossils for dating rocks, shells are used for paleoclimate and paleoceanographic reconstruction
41
what are radiolarians
Unicellular, planktonic protists that construct intricate, glassy, spherical skeletons
42
are radiolarians autotrophic or heterotrophic
Primarily Heterotrophic
43
what are the skeletons of radiolarians made of
Opaline silica.
44
what rock would form from the skeletons of radiolarians
Chert or radiolarian ooze/siliceous ooze.
45
what are fungi
Eukaryotic organisms that are decomposers or parasites; they absorb nutrients (absorptive heterotrophs).
46
how do fungi make a living
They secrete enzymes to digest food externally and then absorb the resulting small organic molecules (absorptive heterotrophs).
47
do fungi have a good fossil record; why or why not
Poor fossil record because they are soft-bodied and decay quickly (durable chitin cell walls are rarely preserved in great numbers).
48
what are plants
Multicellular, photoautotrophic eukaryotes (Domain Plantae) with specialized tissues and an alternation of generations life cycle.
49
how are plants different from multicellular green algae
Plants have key adaptations to land, such as a waxy cuticle to prevent desiccation, and specialized tissues like vessels (xylem/phloem) for transport.
50
what are the 2 major types of plant vessels
Xylem and Phloem.
51
differentiate phloem and xylem
Xylem transports water and minerals upward. Phloem transports sugars (food) throughout the plant.
52
what are some common nonvascular plant taxa
Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts (collectively Bryophytes).
53
what are some common seedless vascular plant taxa
Ferns, horsetails, and club mosses.
54
what are ferns
Seedless vascular plants that have true leaves
55
how do ferns reproduce
They reproduce via spores (no flowers or seeds).
56
what are the 2 main extant forms of seed plants
Gymnosperms (naked seeds) and Angiosperms (flowered/encased seeds).
57
what are seed ferns
An extinct group of vascular plants that had fern-like leaves but reproduced with seeds. Prominent in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic.
58
differentiate gymnosperms and angiosperms
Gymnosperms have "naked seeds" (e.g. cones). Angiosperms have flowers and seeds enclosed within a fruit.
59
what are 2 informal categories of animals
Invertebrates (no backbone) and Vertebrates (have a backbone).
60
what is a coelom
A fluid-filled body cavity completely lined with mesoderm-derived tissue that separates the digestive tract from the outer body wall.
61
differentiate protostomes and deuterostomes
Protostomes ("first mouth") develop the mouth first (e.g.
62
what group represents the "primitive" group of living animals
Sponges (Phylum Porifera).
63
how do sponges feed
Suspension feeders (or filter feeders) that draw water through pores and filter out food particles.
64
what are sponge skeletons made of
Microscopic needle-like structures called spicules, made of either calcium carbonate or silica, and/or a protein called spongin.
65
what are cnidarians
Radially symmetrical animals with stinging cells (cnidocytes/nematocysts), including jellies, sea anemones, and corals (e.g., jellyfish, coral, hydra).
66
what type of symmetry do cnidarians exhibit
Radial symmetry.
67
what are the two main body forms found within cnidarians
The sessile polyp (mouth up) and the motile medusa (mouth down, e.g., jellyfish).
68
how do cnidarians feed
They are predators that use stinging cells on their tentacles to capture and paralyze prey.
69
what were the 2 main groups of Paleozoic corals
Rugose corals (solitary or colonial) and Tabulate corals (always colonial).
70
what are modern corals
Scleractinian corals, which are colonial cnidarians that secrete a calcium carbonate skeleton; they are the main reef builders today.
71
what are mollusks
Soft-bodied, unsegmented animals typically possessing a muscular foot, a mantle, a shell, and a radula.
72
be able to recognize common mollusk taxa
Gastropods (snails), Bivalves (clams, oysters), Cephalopods (squid, octopus, nautilus), and Polyplacophorans (chitons).
73
what are the skeletons of mollusks made of
Typically calcium carbonate.
74
what is the function of a mollusks mantle
A sheet of tissue that secretes the shell.
75
what is a radula
A rasping, tongue-like organ covered with tiny teeth, used by most mollusks (except bivalves) to scrape food.
what are polyplacophorans
76
what are polyplacophorans
Mollusks known as chitons, characterized by an oval body covered by eight dorsal calcareous plates (a segmented shell).
77
where do modern gastropods live
In marine, freshwater, and terrestrial (land) environments.
78
what are cephalopods
Marine mollusks with a distinct head, tentacles, and a shell that is often reduced or internal (e.g., octopus, squid, nautilus).
79
how do cephalopods swim
By jet propulsion, rapidly expelling water from their mantle cavity through a siphon.
80
what is a chambered nautilus
A cephalopod mollusk that is the last extant group to possess a prominent, external, coiled, and chambered shell.
81
what are bivalves
Mollusks that have a shell divided into two hinged halves (valves), such as clams, oysters, and mussels.
82
what are segmented worms
Animals in Phylum Annelida, characterized by a body composed of serially repeated segments (e.g., earthworms, leeches).
83
what are 2 common taxa of lophophorates
Brachiopods and Bryozoans.
84
what are brachiopods
Marine lophophorate animals that have two shells (dorsal/ventral) and a feeding structure called a lophophore.
85
what are the 2 main informal groups of brachiopods
Articulates (shells hinged with teeth) and Inarticulates (shells held by muscle only).
86
when did brachiopods dominate the seafloor
The Paleozoic Era.
87
which group of shelled organisms now occupies the areas brachiopods once dominated
Bivalves (a type of mollusk).
88
what are bryozoans
Colonial, sessile, aquatic lophophorates whose colonies resemble tiny mosses, often called "moss animals."
89
what other animal group do bryozoans superficially resemble
Corals or hydroids (due to their colonial sessile nature).
90
what are plants
Multicellular, photoautotrophic eukaryotes (Domain Plantae) with specialized tissues and an alternation of generations life cycle.
91
what are animals
Multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that lack cell walls and typically have motile stages.
92
what are arthropods
Segmented animals with a hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages.
93
when did trilobites exist
The Paleozoic Era (Cambrian to Permian).
94
why are trilobites called trilobites
They have a body divided into three lobes (tri-lobite): two pleural (side) lobes and one axial (central) lobe.
95
what are some common modern crustacean taxa
Crabs, lobsters, shrimp, and barnacles.
96
what are insects
The most diverse group of arthropods, characterized by a three-part body (head, thorax, abdomen) and three pairs of legs.
97
briefly describe the basic insect body plant
Head (sensory organs), Thorax (three pairs of legs, wings), and Abdomen.
98
what are velvet worms
Animals in Phylum Onychophora, a small group considered a "missing link" between segmented worms (Annelids) and arthropods.
99
what are the 2 main groups of living deuterostomes
Echinoderms (sea stars, urchins) and Chordates (vertebrates).
100
what are some common echinoderm taxa
Sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, and crinoids (sea lilies).
101
what are sea lillies
Crinoids, a class of echinoderms, some of which are sessile with a stalk and feathery arms, resembling a flower.
102
what are some of the hallmark features of chordates
A notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail (present at some stage of development).
103
what is Amphioxus
The common name for lancelets, a small, fish-like marine organism that is a living example of an invertebrate chordate.
104
what are conodonts
Extinct, eel-like chordates whose only common fossil remains are tiny, tooth-like structures (elements), important for dating Paleozoic/Mesozoic rocks.
105
what are the 2 main groups of bony fishes today
Ray-finned fishes and Lobe-finned fishes.
106
what are tetrapods
Vertebrates with four limbs, or descendants of four-limbed ancestors (Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals).
107
what are amniotes
Tetrapods whose embryos develop in an amniotic egg or uterus
108
what are "reptiles"
A paraphyletic group of amniotes, traditionally defined as scaly, egg-laying, ectothermic vertebrates (e.g., snakes, turtles, lizards, crocodiles).
109
what are mammals
Amniotes characterized by mammary glands, hair/fur, and a differentiated dentition (teeth).
110
what are dinosaurs
Extinct, diverse group of reptiles that were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates during the Mesozoic Era; birds are modern dinosaurs.
111
what are birds
Feathered, winged, endothermic (warm-blooded) vertebrates that evolved from a group of theropod dinosaurs.
112
differentiate ectothermic metabolisms from endothermic metabolisms in animals
Ectothermic (Cold-blooded): Body temperature is regulated primarily by external heat sources. Endothermic (Warm-blooded): Body temperature is regulated primarily by internal metabolic processes.
113
what are some of the hallmark features of mammals
Hair/fur, mammary glands, three middle ear bones, a single jaw bone, and endothermy.
114
what are the 3 main groups of living mammals
Monotremes (egg-laying), Marsupials (pouched), and Placental (eutherians).
115
what are therapsids
A group of "mammal-like reptiles" that were the ancestors of mammals
116
know all phyla from the phyla quiz
(Answer depends on the specific quiz content
117
define ecology
The scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment.
118
differentiate biotic and abiotic factors
Biotic: Living components (e.g., animals, plants, fungi). Abiotic: Non-living chemical and physical components (e.g., temperature, light, water, salinity).
119
differentiate low and high latitudes
Low Latitudes: Near the equator (tropical). High Latitudes: Near the poles (arctic/antarctic).
120
differentiate hothouse and icehouse conditions
Hothouse: High carbon dioxide, high global temperatures, and little to no polar ice. Icehouse: A period characterized by low CO2 low global temperatures, and major ice sheets at the poles.
121
between what latitudes are most tropical rain forests located
Near the equator (0 degrees) and generally between 10 degrees N and 10 degrees S latitude.
122
what is a savannah
A tropical or subtropical grassland with scattered trees and seasonal rainfall.
123
between what latitudes are most deserts located
Around 30 degrees N and 30 degrees S latitude.
124
what type of ecosystem is dominant in this area
Deserts (or xeric shrublands).
125
where in Tennessee can you observe plants and animals most associated with northern coniferous forests
In the high elevations of the Appalachian Mountains (e.g.
126
what plants and animals dominate tundras
Low-growing, non-woody plants (mosses, lichens, grasses) and animals adapted to cold (e.g., musk ox, caribou).
127
where is ice found on Earth at the present time
Primarily at the poles (Antarctica and Arctic Ocean) and in high mountains (glaciers).
128
define habitat
The specific place or environment where an organism naturally lives.
129
define niche
The role an organism plays in its community, including all its abiotic and biotic interactions (its "job" in the ecosystem).
130
what is a life habit
The way an organism lives or behaves (e.g., sessile, motile, burrowing, planktonic).
131
what are some of the physical limiting factors that affects the distribution of life on Earth
Temperature, water availability, sunlight, salinity, and oxygen concentration.
132
define competition
An interaction where the fitness of one organism is lowered by the presence of another, due to a limited supply of resources.
133
define predation
An interaction in which one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, the prey.
134
define ecosystem
All the organisms in an area (community) and the abiotic factors with which they interact.
135
define community
All the different populations of species that live and interact in a particular area.
136
define population
A group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area.
137
differentiate producers and consumers
Producers (Autotrophs): Organisms that produce their own food (e.g., sunlight/photosynthesis). Consumers (Heterotrophs): Organisms that obtain energy by eating other organisms.
138
differentiate heterotrophs and autotrophs
Heterotrophs: Obtain food by consuming other organisms. Autotrophs: Produce their own food using light (photo-) or chemicals (chemo-).
139
differentiate carnivores
herbivores
140
which 2 domains of life are common decomposers
Bacteria (Domain Bacteria) and Fungi (Domain Eukarya).
141
differentiate fauna and flora
Fauna: The animal life. Flora: The plant life.
142
differentiate food web and food chain
Food Chain: A single, linear pathway of energy flow (Producer → Primary Consumer → Secondary Consumer). Food Web: A complex, interconnected network of feeding relationships in an ecosystem.
143
are all ecosystems on Earth dependent on the Sun for the initial source of energy
No. Chemosynthetic ecosystems (e.g. deep-sea hydrothermal vents) use chemical energy from Earth's interior instead of sunlight.
144
what are parasites
Organisms that live in or on another organism (host), benefiting by deriving nutrients at the host's expense.
145
what are scavengers
Organisms that feed on the dead remains of other organisms.
146
define diversity in a biological context
The variety of life in an area
147
what role does predation play on species diversity
Predation can increase species diversity by controlling the population of dominant competitors, thus preventing a few species from monopolizing resources.
148
what are opportunistic species
Species that specialize in invading new, disturbed, or temporary habitats; they often have high reproductive rates and poor competitive ability.
149
what are "weed" species
An informal term for opportunistic species that grow vigorously and displace other species often in disturbed or human-made habitats.
150
define biogeography
The study of the geographic distribution of organisms and the reasons for their distribution.
151
define paleobiogeography
The study of the geographic distribution of ancient organisms as recorded in the fossil record, animals, and other organisms, and the reasons for their distribution.
152
define dispersal
The movement of organisms from their place of origin to other areas.
153
be able to recognize common barriers to dispersal
Oceans for terrestrial organisms, land for marine organisms, mountain ranges, deserts, and extreme climate zones.
154
what are the major constituents of Earth's atmosphere at the present time
Approximately 78 percent Nitrogen and 21 percent Oxygen.
155
has the makeup of Earth's atmosphere remained constant through geologic time
No. Oxygen levels have increased dramatically since the Precambrian Great Oxidation Event.
156
how does axial tilt affect climate on Earth
The tilt of Earth's axis is the primary cause of seasons.
157
define Coriolis effect
The deflection of objects (like wind and ocean currents) due to Earth's rotation.
158
how does the Coriolis affect differ between northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere
Deflection to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and deflection to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
159
differentiate warm air from cool air in terms of density and ability to hold water vapor
Warm air is less dense (rises) and holds more water vapor. Cool air is denser (sinks) and holds less water vapor.
160
what happens to water vapor in air masses that cool
The air mass reaches its dew point, and the water vapor condenses into liquid water (clouds, rain).
161
differentiate easterlies
Trade Winds (Easterlies): Blow from East to West near the equator (0∘ to 30∘). Westerlies: Blow from West to East in the mid-latitudes (30∘ to 60∘). Polar Easterlies: Blow from East to West near the poles.
162
what is the intertropical convergence zone
The low-pressure zone near the equator where the Northern and Southern Hemisphere trade winds converge, resulting in high humidity and heavy rainfall.
163
why are most deserts located around 30 degrees North and South latitude
Because cool, dry air that rose at the equator sinks back to the surface around 30∘ latitude, creating high-pressure zones where moisture is rapidly absorbed.
164
define albedo
The measure of the reflectivity of a surface; the ratio of reflected solar radiation to incoming solar radiation.
165
differentiate forest
ice and snow: Highest albedo (reflects the most, up to 90%). Forest: Low albedo (absorbs a lot). Ocean: Lowest albedo (absorbs the most, especially when dark).
166
differentiate negative and positive feedback systems
Negative Feedback: A change in a system triggers a response that counteracts/reverses the initial change (stabilizes the system). Positive Feedback: A change in a system triggers a response that amplifies the initial change (destabilizes the system).
167
why are icehouse and hothouse conditions often described as positive feedback systems with respect to presence/absence of ice on Earth's surface
Icehouse (Positive Feedback): Cooling → Ice forms → Ice increases albedo → More sun reflected → More cooling. Hothouse (Positive Feedback): Warming → Ice melts → Less albedo → More sun absorbed by water/land → More warming.
168
define tropical climates
Climates found near the equator, characterized by high temperatures and high rainfall throughout the year.
169
define deserts
Climates characterized by very low precipitation (arid) and often extreme daily temperature shifts.
170
what are savannas and why are tree species rare
Tropical grasslands with scattered trees. Tree species are rare due to seasonal rainfall (drought) and frequent fires.
171
what happens to available moisture as Earth cools as Earth warms
As Earth cools: Available moisture decreases (trapped in ice sheets). As Earth warms: Available moisture increases (released from melting ice).
172
differentiate north and south poles with respect to land masses and ice sheets
South Pole (Antarctica): A continent covered by a thick continental ice sheet (land-based ice). North Pole (Arctic): Primarily a frozen ocean covered by sea ice (ocean-based ice).
173
what are glaciers
A large, persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight; formed from the accumulation and compaction of snow.
174
what is "calving" with respect to glaciers
The process by which chunks of ice break off from the edge of a glacier into a body of water.
175
define tundra
A treeless biome found in the Arctic or high mountains, characterized by permafrost (permanently frozen soil) and low-growing vegetation.
176
what plants dominate northern coniferous forests
Conifers (cone-bearing
177
what plants dominate temperate deciduous forests
Deciduous trees that lose their leaves seasonally (e.g.
178
differentiate deciduous plants and evergreen plants
Deciduous: Plants that shed their leaves seasonally. Evergreen: Plants that retain their leaves year-round.
179
what is a Mediterranean climate
A climate characterized by hot
180
where is a Mediterranean climate found within the United States
Along the coast of Southern and Central California.
181
differentiate weather and climate
Weather: The short-term atmospheric conditions. Climate: The long-term average weather pattern.
182
what factors control climate
Latitude
183
why is it said that climbing a tall mountain is like like moving "up latitude"
Because temperature drops and climate zones change with increasing elevation
184
how do air masses and mountains interact
Air masses are forced to rise over mountains
185
what is a rain shadow
An area of low rainfall on the leeward (downwind) side of a mountain range.
186
where are rain shadows located in the continental United States
East of the Cascade Mountains (Washington/Oregon) and east of the Sierra Nevada (California).
187
why does Earth experience seasons
Due to the tilt of the Earth's axis
188
differentiate the relative heat capacities of land and ocean
Ocean (Water): Has a high heat capacity (slow to change temp). Land (Soil/Rock): Has a low heat capacity (fast to change temp).
189
define monsoon circulation
A seasonal change in wind direction that results in extremely wet summers (sea to land wind) and dry winters (land to sea wind).
190
what are cycads and how has cycad distribution changed through geologic time and why
Cycads are palm-like
191
how can leaf margins be used to infer average annual temperatures
A higher percentage of plants with smooth (entire) leaf margins indicates warmer average temperatures.
192
differentiate ocean currents with respect to temperature and direction of flow northern and southern hemispheres and at the equator
Northern Hemisphere: Currents generally flow clockwise (Warm currents flow North). Southern Hemisphere: Currents generally flow counter-clockwise (Warm currents flow South). Equator: Currents flow West.
193
define circumpolar current
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)
194
why is Antarctica frozen
Because the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) prevents warm equatorial waters from reaching it
195
what happens to sea water as ice forms on its surface
When sea ice forms
196
differentiate waves and tides
Waves: Caused by wind. Tides: Caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun.
197
what are tidal forces
The gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and Sun on Earth's water
198
differentiate continental shelf
continental slope
199
what are epicontinental seas
Shallow seas that cover large parts of the continental landmasses (cratonic or interior seas).
200
has our area ever experienced the presence of epicontinental seas and if so when
Yes. Much of North America was covered by epicontinental seas multiple times
201
what are marshes
Wetlands dominated by non-woody
202
what are barrier islands
Long
203
what is the photic zone
The upper layer of a body of water that receives enough sunlight for photosynthesis to occur.
204
differentiate benthic
nekton
205
differentiate phytoplankton and zooplankton
Phytoplankton: Photosynthetic (plant-like) plankton (producers). Zooplankton: Heterotrophic (animal-like) plankton (consumers).
206
define sessile
Describes an organism that is immobile; attached to a substrate and unable to move about.
207
differentiate deposit feeders and suspension feeders
Deposit Feeders: Ingest sediment and extract nutrients from the organic matter in it. Suspension Feeders (Filter Feeders): Filter food particles suspended in the water.
208
differentiate antarctic
arctic
209
define reef
A rigid
210
what organisms dominated reefs in the Precambrian
and during the Paleozoic
211
differentiate rugose corals
tabulate corals
212
what are zooxanthellae
Symbiotic dinoflagellates that live within the tissues of modern reef-building corals
213
differentiate oceanic or salt water from brackish and hypersaline water
Oceanic/Salt Water: Standard seawater salinity. Brackish: Water that is less salty than seawater. Hypersaline: Water that is saltier than seawater.
214
briefly describe the significance of Shark Bay
Australia
215
what are some of the characteristics of icehouse conditions recorded in the rock record
Glacial deposits (tillites
216
what are braided streams and when and where ddid/do they form
Streams with a wide
217
where meandering rivers always present on Earth's continental land masses
No. They became common after the evolution of land plants (Devonian) stabilized river banks.
218
differentiate meandering river deposits from prograding delta deposits
Meandering River: Deposits are usually fining-upward sequences. Prograding Delta: Deposits are usually coarsening-upward sequences.
219
what are ooids and where do they form
Small
220
what are turbidites
Layers of sediment deposited by turbidity currents (underwater gravity flows)
221
what are varves
Finely laminated
222
what are dropstones
Isolated
223
what is the relationship between lagoons and barrier islands
A lagoon is a shallow body of water located between a barrier island and the mainland.
224
what are tempestites
Storm deposits (sand layers) formed by large waves and currents generated by major storms. They form on the continental shelf in shallow marine environments.
225
define paleogeography
The study of the geographic features of Earth in the geologic past.
226
define soil
A complex mixture of mineral matter
227
when did soil first appear on Earth's surface
True
228
define topsoil
The uppermost layer of soil (A-horizon)
229
define humus
Dark
230
can soil provide information on climate
Yes. Soil types
231
define caliche and describe how it forms
Caliche is a hardened layer of calcium carbonate that precipitates and cements soil in the subsurface of arid and semi-arid climates.
232
define laterite and describe how it forms
Laterite is a red
233
why is converting tropical rainforest to agriculture not very productive
The nutrients are mostly stored in the biomass (plants)
234
what are "devil's corkscrews" and how
when
235
what are some of the characteristics of lake deposits
Fine-grained sediments (mud/shale)
236
what sorts of scales do geologists use in photographs
A scale card/ruler with a clear length measurement or common objects (hammer
237
what are glacial striations and what do they record
Scratches or grooves etched into bedrock by rock fragments embedded in the base of a moving glacier. They record the direction of ice movement.
238
what are till
tillite
239
what are meltwater
outwashes
240
what are dropstones and what do they indicate
Isolated
241
name some common evaporite minerals
Halite (rock salt)
242
differentiate playas and playa lakes
Playa: A flat
243
differentiate external drainage and internal drainage
External Drainage: Water flows out of a basin and eventually reaches the ocean. Internal Drainage: Water flows into a basin but does not flow out to the ocean (evaporation/infiltration only).
244
what are desert dunes
Mounds or ridges of sand deposited by wind (eolian action) in arid or coastal environments.
245
what are some of the characteristics of desert dune sands
Well-sorted (similar grain size)
246
are dunes stationary
No. They migrate in the direction of the prevailing wind.
247
describe trough cross-stratification
Curved or scoop-shaped cross-bedding within a sedimentary layer
248
what is the angle of repose with respect to sand grains
The steepest angle at which loose
249
what are alluvial fans and where do they form
Cone-shaped
250
what are arkoses and where do they form
Arkoses are sandstones rich in potassium feldspar; they typically form in arid climates or on alluvial fans where chemical weathering is limited.
251
what are mudcracks and where do they form
Polygonal
252
differentiate halite
gypsum
253
be able to recognize the generalized relative locations of the following: mountains
seas
254
differentiate braided streams and meandering rivers
Braided Streams: High energy
255
what types of sediments and sedimentary rocks would you expect to be associated with braided streams
Coarse
256
what types of sediments and sedimentary rocks would you expect to be associated with meandering rivers
Coarse sand/gravel in the channel (point bars)
257
describe the relative locations of cut banks
point bars
258
what types of sediments would you expect to be associated with channels and flood plains
Channels: Coarse sand and gravel. Flood Plains: Fine mud and silt.
259
define Walther's law and relate to a meandering river system
Walther's Law: Facies (rock types) that occur in a vertical succession must have been formed in laterally adjacent environments. The vertical stacking of point bar sand over floodplain mud is an example of lateral migration.
260
define prograding delta and describe the relationship of sediments to growth of a delta system
Prograding Delta: A delta that is building outward. Sediments show a coarsening-upward sequence as environments shift seaward.
261
differentiate delta plains
delta fronts
262
what are distributary channels and are they stationary
Channels on the delta plain that branch out from the main river. No
263
what are delta lobes and differentiate active lobes from abandoned lobes
Delta Lobes: The distinct
264
who controls the Mississippi River Delta and why
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers controls the flow to prevent the river from naturally switching its main course (avulsing).
265
briefly describe a deltaic cycle
A cycle of growth (progradation) of a new delta lobe
266
describe a barrier island lagoon complexes and associated sediments
Barrier Island: High-energy beach and dune sand (well-sorted). Lagoon: Low-energy mud/silt and fine sand
267
what types of sand grains does one expect to find on a beach
Well-sorted
268
how does progradation relate to Walther's law
Progradation (seaward movement of the coast) causes a vertical sequence of rock layers that mimics the lateral arrangement of the environments (e.g.
269
can fossils help us reconstruct paleoenvironments; if so
how
270
what other types of geologic information can help a geologist reconstruct paleoenvironments
Sediment/Rock Type
271
what are tempestites and where and how did/do they form
Storm deposits (sand layers) formed by large waves and currents generated by major storms. They form on the continental shelf in shallow marine environments.
272
what is a carbonate system
A system where the primary sediments are composed of calcium carbonate
273
what are organic reefs
Rigid
274
what organisms have/do construct organic reefs
Precambrian: Cyanobacteria (Stromatolites). Paleozoic: Sponges
275
differentiate reef cores
reef flates
276
what are and where do talus slopes form in relation to reefs
Sloping piles of broken reef debris that accumulate on the seaward side of the reef (the fore-reef slope).
277
where do lagoons form in relation to reefs
Lagoons form on the leeward (back-reef) side of a barrier or atoll reef.
278
differentiate seaward and leeward with respect to reefs
Seaward (Fore-reef): The side facing the open ocean (high-energy). Leeward (Back-reef): The side sheltered from the open ocean (low-energy).
279
what are atolls
how do they form
280
why are geologists interested in paleo reefs and paleo atolls
They are important reservoirs for oil and gas.
281
what are carbonate platforms and where are they found today and in the past
Extensive
282
what are stromatolites and how
when
283
what is significant about Shark Bay
Australia
284
what are turbidites and how to they form
Layers of sediment deposited by turbidity currents (dense
285
what are scour marks and flute casts and where and how do they form
Scour Marks are erosional features. Flute Casts are the sediment infilling of scour marks. They form from the erosive action of currents in fluvial and deep marine environments.
286
define pelagic
Refers to the open ocean water column
287
why do carbonates not form at great depths or high latitudes
High Latitudes: Water is too cold. Great Depths: Carbonate skeletons dissolve below the Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD).
288
define calcareous ooze
Deep-sea
289
what are foraminifera and coccolithophores/calcareous nanoplankton
The two main groups of planktonic organisms whose calcium carbonate skeletons form calcareous ooze.
290
define siliceous ooze
Deep-sea
291
what are diatoms and radiolarians
The two main groups of planktonic organisms whose silica skeletons form siliceous ooze.
292
differentiate the latitudinal differences between the occurrences of calcareous oozes and siliceous oozes
Calcareous Ooze: Found globally
293
Geologic Time Scale: Eons
Eras
294
relative vs absolute dating
Relative Dating: Determining the order of events (which is older/younger) using principles like superposition. Absolute Dating: Determining the age in years using radioactive decay.
295
Nicolas Steno
William "Strata" Smith
Geology
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