0
Q
Generalized Motor Program (GMP)
A
- theory
- movements can be varied along certain dimensions
ex) slow/fast, louder/softer
1
Q
Motor Program
A
prestructured set of movement commands that defines and shapes the movement
2
Q
Open Loop Control
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Input, Executive, Effector, Output
- no feedback or comparator
- no modifications while in progress
- inflexible
- most effective in stable environments
3
Q
Open Loop Example
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-traffic light continues to go even if an accident takes place
4
Q
Motor Program determines
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- which muscles to contract
- in what order
- when
- for how long
5
Q
Practice helps build motor programs that are:
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- more stable
- more precise
- longer-operating
- combo of those
6
Q
Practice stored in
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long term memory. must be retrieved and prepared for initiation during response programming
7
Q
Most tasks are:
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a mix of open and closed loop system
8
Q
Reaction Time is longer with:
A
- more info to process
- more limbs must be coordinated
- duration of movements becomes longer
9
Q
Startle Reaction
A
unexpected event causes a severe reaction
-accompanied by contraction of face/neck and protective movements of upper limbs
10
Q
Startle Reaction motor program
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- executive prepares motor program in advance
- signal released by executive is hastened
- executor may be bypassed altogether
11
Q
Roles of Open Loop (muscles)
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determine:
- forcefulness
- duration
- which ones contract
12
Q
Roles of Open Loop
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- organize degrees of freedom of muscles and joints
- initiate postural adjustments for support of action
- modulate reflexive pathways to ensure movement goal is met
13
Q
Anticipatory Adjustments
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motor system compensates before the movement is made
14
Q
Generalized Motor Program Theory
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- stored pattern
- stored program is adjusted at time of movement execution
- allows action to be changed slightly to meet environmental demands
15
Q
invariant features of motor program
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make a pattern appear the same time after time
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Q
surface features of a motor program
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aspects that allow change in a movement
17
Q
GMP Movement Production
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- stimulus id phase
- response selection phase
- GMP retrieved from long term memory
- movement programming stage (motor program is prepared)
18
Q
movement parameters
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- speed of movement
- amplitude
- limb used
19
Q
invariant features of a GMP
A
- relative timing (rhythm) (timing preserved)
- classes of movements (“throwing”)
20
Q
GMP Parameters
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- movement time
- movement amplitude
- effectors (movement can be modulated by using a different limb to produce same action)
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Q
Fitt’s Law
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movement time is consistent whenever the ratio of the movement amplitude to target width remains constant
- MT increases as ratio of A to W increases
- long movements+wide targets = short movements + narrow targets
22
Q
haste makes waste?
A
accuracy decreases as speed increases
23
Q
speed accuracy trade off
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people tend to give up speed in order to trade speed for accuracy
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slower movements are more accurate
- more time to detect errors and make corrections
| - MT increases when # of corrections needed increases
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Linear speed accuracy trade off
if movement distance increases, MT can be decreased and accuracy can be maintained during rapid tasks
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sources of error in rapid movements
-force is inconsistent over successive trials
ex- hitting a nail with hammer
-as MT decreases, forces exerted must increase
-contraction force increases = more variability
-movement inaccuracy increases as MT decreases
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exceptions to speed accuracy trade off
- very forceful movements are consistent spatially
- force variability levels off as force approaches max
-temporal accuracy (decrease MT = decrease error)
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Bimanual Aiming tasks
- MT and kinematics for both limbs are determined by a joint command
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Continuous Bimanual Tasks
controlling continuous movement of two limbs, each with its own spatial or temporal goal
ex) rubbing head while patting tummy
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differential method
-differences between and among people
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ability
a fundamental characteristic of different individuals that tends to underlie particular skills
-largely inherited and unmodifiable by practice
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individual differences
- stable & enduring
- measurable characteristic
- or in terms of performance
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skill
- proficiency at a particular task
- can be modified by practice
- countless in number
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ability sets limits for performance
- body type
| - personality
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General Motor Ability Hypothesis
- single inherited motor ability is assumed
- underlies all movements
- "all around athlete" good at all motor tasks
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Henry's Specificity Hypothesis
If person does well on motor task A, they will do well on motor task B
-assumed strong general motor ability
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Correlations among various skills
- unless tasks are very similar, no correlation success during skills
- there are many abilities vs single general motor ability
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Types of Motor Ability
- reaction time
- response orientation(quick choices among a # of alternative moves)
- speed of movement
- finger dexterity
- manual dexterity
- response integration
- physical fitness
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Superability
- may be a very weak general factor underlying most movement skills
- gives slight advantage
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criterion skill
ultimate skill in which person is interested
| -how to find someone with the "right" abilities for a particular sport
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advantages of prediction
- novices can be directed
- reduce training time
- training more focused
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Fleishman & Hempel Study
- pushing switches in response to lights (RT)
- discrimination RT is fairly large contributor to performance, increases from 20% to 40%
- become less reliant on abilities
- performance depended on different abilites at the start of practice (spatial relations) than at the end (rate of arm movement)
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Motor Learning Theory
set of ideas used to explain the acquisition and modification of movements
-several theories
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Motor Learning
process of acquiring the capability for skilled action
- results from experience or practice
- inferred based on behavior, not measured directly
- produces permanent behavior changes
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learned behavior
- evident on a retention test
| - skill can be generalized
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most effective practice conditions lead to
accurate performance in a novel version/scenario/setting
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goals of practice and training
long-term retention
generalizability
task learning resistant to altered contexts
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Intrinsic feedback
- info gathered through an individuals available senses
- occurs as the person is performing the movement skill
- compared to a learned reference of correctness
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extrinsic feedback
- provided verbally to the learner (by another)
- supplements intrinsic feedback
- can be provided as knowledge of results or of performance
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Knowledge of Results
- postaction info feedback
- about the movement outcome
- provides error and modifications
- helps keep the learner alert and motivated
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Knowledge of Performance
- post-action info about the correctness of movement pattern
| - directed towards improving the movement pattern
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Strongest influence on motor learning
practice
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massed practice
- continuous practice with no rest periods
| - or practice sessions during which the practice time is longer than the rest period between practices
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distributed practice
- interspersed practice
- more time spent resting between practice sessions
- enhances performance and learning more than massed practice (for continuous tasks)
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whole-task practice
-practicing the entire activity
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part-task practice
- practicing components of the activity
- unless the component parts are subskills of each other or natural components of the task, part practice is not as beneficial as whole practice
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mental practice
performing or running through the activity in one's mind without physical practice
- can't replace physical practice but can help with tasks requiring accuracy
- triggers neural circuits underlying previously learned physical movement sequences
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constant practice
practicing the same movement task in the same way for every trial
-no variations in task conditions
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varying practice
- altering the conditions of the task across practice trials
- more effective than constant practice
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schedule of practice
- how different tasks practiced together are grouped or ordered in a session
- multitask practice
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Contextual Interference Effect
| blocked practice
- learner learns better during the practice session
| - less retention/memory for the skills later
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Contextual Interference Effect
| random practice
- more controlled/strategic cognitive processing
- more opportunities for changing the action plan
- may perform poorly during practice but
- more cognitive efforts = more memory and generalization
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most successful learning
variety of tasks in a nonsystematic way
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physical guidance is
no more effective than allowing a learner to engage in unguided practice
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organized movement patterns
movement synergies or coordinative structures
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children with movement difficulties
- may not solve problems in a typical way
- extrinsic sources of feedback that focus a child's attention on specific aspects of the task and sensory cues may be important
- little research
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optimal feedback control
- accurate prediction of consequences of motor demands
- combine predictions with sensory feedback to form judgment
- use estimate to adjust the gains of sensorimotor feedback loop
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skilled athletes
- performance continues to improve with task-relevant practice over indefinitely
- rate of improvement declines over time
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factors important for skill learning in sport
- explicit awareness
- attention
- motivation
- reward in adaptation
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importance of coaches
- directs the trials and errors
- reduce space that needs to be explored
- assists in choosing the optimal long-term strategy
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neurocognitive skill development;
| increased perceptual skill is associated with...?
- map expansion
- alteration in temporal response of neurons
- improved attention at subconscious level
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automaticity
- not necessarily indicative of high proficiency
| - false ceiling
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motivation may improve motor performance through
- general arousing or energizing effect
| - goal specific component
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results of practice
- gain in underlying capability for skilled performance
| - then improved capability leads to improved performance
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performance does not equal
learning
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motor learning
set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent gains in the capability for skilled performance
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learning results from
practice and experience
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observing learning
- not direct; must observe products of learning
- CNS alterations occur during practice
- products of learning can be measured via changes in skill
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changes in learning occur in
- decision-making processes
| - movement control processes
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learning requires permanent changes
-temporary effects can change performance
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measuring motor learning
performance curves= average performance of large # of people practicing a task
- large changes occur early in practice and level out later on
- dont indicate progress in permanent capability
- all subjects do not improve at the same rate
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transfer designs
- used to determine whether effects are permanent or temporary
- retention test is given
- paddles on hands for swimming to keep fingers together, then take paddles off and see if fingers stay together
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break down skills not as effective for
rapid skills (tennis serve)
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specific transfer
- limited range of variations
| - bball free throw
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generalized transfer
- learning goal is relatively similar to the training task
ex) jump shot in bball
- develop general capabilities for a wide variety of skills
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visualization
- mental imagery
- imagining action without physical practice
- shown to improve performance
- not as good as physical practice but better than none at all
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how visualization works
- imagining allows physiological creation of neural patterns in your brain, as if you performed the action
- trains the mind to create neural patterns
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mental imagery impacts
- motor control
- attention
- perception
- planning memory
Motor Development
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